MODULE 1: ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

CURRENT OF ELECTRICITY

An electric current is described as the flow of charged particles (which could be ions, electrons,
holes etc.). The unit of charge is the Coulomb (C)

The Coulomb (C) is defined as the quantity of charges passing a point in a conductor each
second when a current of exactly 1A is flowing i.e. 1C = 1As

Current (I) is the rate of flow of charge. The unit of current is the Ampere (A)
For a steady current, I = Q / t
Question
What is the quantity of charge passing a point in a circuit if a current of 2A flows for 4 min?

For a varying current, changing the rate of flow of charges varies the current at an instant I is
given by I = dQ / dt

THE MECHANISM OF CONDUCTION (CHARGE FLOW) IN METALS

When atoms combine, their outer electrons are used in chemical bonding. Metals are held
together in solid crystalline form by metallic bonding. The outer valence electrons of each atom
only loosely held move at random through the crystal lattice to form a pool of "delocalized
electrons" or "free" electrons. The force of attraction between the positively charged metal ions
and the "delocalized” or "free" electrons is what constitute the metallic bond.
Due to the thermal energy that the free electrons possess, they move freely and randomly
inside the metal, colliding with one another and with the ions in the metal lattice. When a
potential difference is applied across a piece of the metal rod (see diagram 1), an electric field E
is set up and as the electrons move randomly in the metal, they also drift towards the end with
the positive potential.
DIAGRAM 1

The average velocity of the free electrons in the direction of drift (which is in the direction
opposite to that of the electric field in the metal) is known as the drift velocity of the free
electrons.
To derive an equation that relates the drift velocity v of the free electrons to the current I assume
that:
A = cross-sectional area of the wire, and

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n = number of free electrons per unit volume of the rod.
Therefore volume of charge carriers that pass through a cross-section P each second = A x v

The number of free electrons that pass through a cross-section P of the wire per second = nAv
Each free electron carries a charge of e =1.6 × 10-19 C. Thus
The charge per second passing through section P = nAve
But, current = rate of flow of charge
 I = n A ve

During electrical conduction electrons move toward the positive terminal of the battery while
being steadily replaced by more electrons from the negative terminal of the battery.
Scientist, 150 years ago, established a convention that the direction of electric current is from
positive to negative because they imagined the charge carriers to be positive.
DIAGRAM

POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
The potential difference between two points in a circuit is the amount of electrical energy
converted into other forms of energy when a unit charge passes from one point to the other.
The unit of potential difference is the VOLT (V)

The Volt
If the work done in causing one coulomb of electric charge to flow between two points is one (1)
Joule then the potential difference (p.d.) between the points is one (1) Volt
1 V = 1JC -1
Therefore if 6 J are converted per coulomb then the p.d. is 6V.
It follows that the work done in moving a charge through a potential difference is given by:
Work done in joules (J) = charge(C) x p.d (V)

W = QV

If there is a steady current, I, flowing Q = I t

 W=VIt

ELECTRICAL POWER
The rate of dissipation of electrical energy in the device is defined as it electrical power

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 W VIt
P   VI
t t
P  IV
The unit of power is the WATT (W); 1 W =J s-1

ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE
Every circuit needs a supply of power to drive current round the circuit. The device, which
supplies the electrical power, the source, has one of its terminals positively charge and the other
maintain negatively charge. In the circuit the source forces electron out from the negative
terminal to the positive terminal. Inside the source the electrical energy is produced from other
forms of energy to maintain the charge of the terminal.

Example
Dynamos, which convert mechanical work into electrical energy
Cells which convert chemical energy into electrical energy
Solar cells which convert light energy into electrical energy
e.m.f., E is a measure of the energy converted from other forms into electrical energy by a
source in driving a unit charge round a complete circuit.
e.m.f., E of a source is the electrical energy produced per unit charge inside the source.
The SI unit of e.m.f. is the volt (V) since 1V = 1JC-1
A battery of e.m.f. 12 V produces, 12 J of electrical energy for every coulomb.
A generator with e.m.f. of 110V supplies 110J per coulomb and so it is a greater source of
energy.
Electrical energy supplied by the source W = Q E

Distinguish between ‘e.m.f.’ and ‘p.d.’ in terms of energy consideration

e.m.f. deal with the generation of electrical energy by a source
p.d. deals with the dissipation of electrical energy in a circuit.

RESISTANCE
The electrical resistance of a conductor R is defined as the ratio of the potential difference V,
across it to the current, I, flowing through it
V
R
I
The unit of electrical resistance is the () ohm
The Ohm is the resistance of a conductor in which the current flowing 1 Amp when the p.d. V
across it is 1 Volt
1  = 1 VA -1
So from the above equation it follows that
V
V  IR OR I 
R

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 OHMS LAW states
The current following through a conductor is directly proportional to the p.d. across it, provided
there is no change in the (physical condition) or temperature of the conductor

V
R =Constant (R)
I

INVESTIGATING RESISTANCE

The circuit above is used to pass a current through the device under test. The p.d. across the
device is measured using a high resistance voltmeter. The current through the device is varied
in steps using the rheostat. At each step the p.d is measured by the voltmeter and the current
measured from the ammeter. The measurement can be displayed as a graph of current against
p.d. Typical graphs for different devices are shown below:

A length of wire (A metallic conductor). The

graph is a straight line through the origin, so
the current is proportional to the p.d. Hence the
resistance (= V/I) is constant, showing that the
wire is an ohmic conductor.

A filament lamp. The graph of I against V

becomes less and less steep as the current
increases from zero. So the value of V/I
increases as the current increases. Hence the
resistance of the filament increases with
increasing current. This is because the filament
becomes hotter as its current increases. Like
any metal, the filament resistance increases
with increased temperature.

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A semiconductor diode. The graph shows
that the diode conducts in one direction only.
This direction, called the forward direction,
allows conduction much more easily than in
the reverse direction. In the reverse direction,
a diode has a very high resistance.

RESISTIVITY
It is found experimentally that the resistance R of a metal wire is directly proportional to is length
l, and inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area A.
l
R
A
l
R
A
where  is a constant for a given material and  is called the resistivity of the material.
The unit of resistivity is the ohm metre (m)

Questions
1. What length of constantan wire of diameter 0.60 mm has a resistance of 10.0? Assume the
resistivity of constantan is 5.0 x 10 -7 m. If the cross-sectional area is double its original what is
new resistance?
2. A 25.0 m length of wire 1.80 mm in diameter has a resistance of 2.80 . What in the resistance of
a 30.0 m length of wire 3.80 mm in diameter made of the same material?

Solution
2  (6  104 ) 2
Area   d   2.83  10 7 m 2
4 4
RA 10  2.83  10 7
l   5.66 m
 5.0  10 7
if the area of the wire is double then the resistance would be one half its original value

The effects of Temperature on Resistivity

The resistivity of metals depends somewhat on temperature. In general, the resistance of
metals increases with temperature. This is not surprising, for at higher temperatures, the atoms
are moving more rapidly and are arranged in a less orderly fashion; so they might be expected
to interfere more with the flow of electrons. If the temperature change is not too great, the
resistivity of metals usually increases nearly linearly with temperature. That is,
 T   0 [1  (T  T0 )]
where 0 is the resistivity at some reference temperature To (such as 0°C or 20°C), T is the
resistivity at a temperature T and  is the temperature coefficient of resistivity. Values for  are
given in the Table below

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TABLE: Resistivity and Temperature Coefficients (at 20°C)
Temperature
Resistivity, p (m)
Material Coefficient, 
Conductors
Silver
1.59 x 10-8 0.0061
Copper 1.68 x 10-8 0.0068
Gold 2.44 x 10-8 0.0034
Aluminium 2.65 x 10-8 0.00429
Tungsten 5.60 x 10-8 0.0045
Iron 9.71 x 10-8 0.00651
Platinum 10.6 x 10-8 0.003927
Mercury 98 x 10 -8 0.0009
Nichrome (alloy of Ni, Fe, Cr) 100x 10 -8
Carbon (graphite) 0.0004
(3-60) x 10-5
-0.0005
Semiconductors'
Germanium (1-500) x 10-3 -0.05
Silicon 0.1 - 60 -0.07
Insulators
Glass 109 - 1012
Hard rubber 1013 - 1015
Values depend strongly on presence of even slight amounts of impurities.
Note that the temperature coefficient for semiconductors can be negative. Why? It seems that at
higher temperatures, some of the electrons that are not normally free in a semiconductor
become free and can contribute to the current. Thus, the resistance of a semiconductor can
decrease with an increase in temperature, although this is not always the case.

Resistance thermometer
The variation in electrical resistance with temperature can be used to make precise temperature
measurements. Platinum is usually used since it is relatively free from corrosive effects and has
a high melting point.

QUESTION At 20°C the resistance of a platinum resistance thermometer is 164.2 . When placed in
a particular solution, the resistance is 187.4 . What is the temperature of this solution?

SOLUTION Since the resistance R is directly proportional to the resistivity, we can combine the
equations to obtain
R T  R 0[1  (T  T0 )]
Here R0 = 0L/A is the resistance of the wire at T0 = 20°C. We solve this equation for T and find
R  R0 187.5  164.2)
T  T0   200  3 0 1
 56.00 C
R 0 3.927  10 (C ) 164.2

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More convenient for some applications is a thermistor, which consists of a metal oxide or semiconductor
whose resistance also varies in a repeatable way with temperature. They can be made quite small and
respond very quickly to temperature changes. They have another advantage in that they can be used at
very high or low temperatures where gas or liquid thermometers would be useless.
The value of  in the equation depends on temperature, so it is important to check the temperature range
of validity of any value (say, in a handbook of physical data). If the temperature range is wide, then the
above equation is not adequate and terms proportional to the square and cube of the temperature are
needed, but they are generally very small except when T - To is large.

THERMISTORS
A thermistor is a type of resistor whose resistance varies with temperature. They are widely used as
temperature sensors in circuits such as a thermostat to keep temperature constant or in an alarm to detect
when temperature gets too high or too low (e.g. fire alarms, commercial freezers, etc.).

Thermistors can be classified into two types depending on the sign of the temperature coefficient of
resistance, . If  is positive, the resistance increases with increasing temperature and the device is called
a positive temperature coefficient (PTC) thermistor. If  is negative, the resistance decreases with
increasing temperature and the device is called a negative temperature coefficient (NTC) thermistor.
Thermistors are generally two-terminal semiconductor devices that have an electrical resistance that
varies non-linearly with temperature. Most thermistors are of the NTC type which can be used to
safeguard against current surges in circuits where this could be harmful.

A plot of resistance against temperature (R-T characteristics) for a typical NTC thermistor is given below.

These thermistors are most sensitive at low temperatures where the R-T curve is the steepest. Sensitivity
drops rapidly as temperature increases.

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RESISTOR COMBINATION RULES
Resistors in series

1. The same current, I, flows through each resistor

2. The total p.d. VT across all resistors is equal to the sum of the p.d’s across each resistor in series.

VT  V1  V2  V3
This is because the electrical energy supplied per coulomb to the system is equal to the electrical
energy per coulomb in all resistors.
3 From the definition of resistance

V
R  V  IR
I
 IR T  IR 1  IR 2  IR 3
Dividing by I we get
R T  R1  R 2  R 3

Question 3
For the circuit shown below, calculate: (a) the total resistance of the circuit, (b) I (c) V1 (d) V2

RESISTORS IN PARALLEL
1. Resistors in parallel have the same p.d. V across each resistor

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2. The total current, I, from source entering combination is equal to the sum of the current in separate
branches of a parallel circuit.
IT = I1 + I2 + I3
Charge is conserved  rate of flow of charge from source = total rate of flow of charge in each
resistor in parallel

3. From the definition of resistance

V V
R I
I R
 I T  I1  I 2  I 3
V V V V
  
R T R1 R 2 R 3
Dividing by V we get
1/ R T  1/ R1  1/ R 2  1/ R 3
Total resistance is less than the least individual resistance in the circuit.

Question 4
For the circuit shown below, calculate without finding the total resistance of the circuit (a) I 1 (b) I2 (c)
I3

Question 5
For the circuit shown below, calculate:
(a) the combined resistance of the 12  and 4.0  resistors,
(b) the total resistance of the circuit,
(c) I,
(d) V1,
(e) V2,
(f) I1,
(g) I 2.

Question 6. Find the value of I in each of circuits (a) and (b)

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Question 7. Find the value of the current, I, in the circuit below.

POTENTIAL DIVIDERS

A potential divider is an arrangement of resistors in series in such a way that they provide a
variable fraction of a fixed p.d. to a device. The simplest form of the potential divider is two
series resistors connected to a battery and the voltage is measured between the negative
terminal and a point between the two resistors.

Vin
The output p.d. Vout is given by Vout  IR 2 but the current flowing in the circuit is I 
R1  R 2
 V   R2 
Therefore Vout   in
R 2 so that Vout   Vin . That is, the output p.d is a
 1
R  R 2   1
R  R 2 
fraction of the total resistance multiplied by the input p.d.

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If a variable resistor is used in the circuit as shown below, the output p.d. can be varied from
 R 
zero to Vin. In this case Vout   BC
Vin RBC can be varied by moving the slider along
 R AB  R BC 
AC.

Note that variable resistors can be used as a -

 Rheostat to control the current in a circuit.
 Potential divider to control the p.d. applied to a device. This application is commonly
used to control the volume of sound in radios, televisions, etc.

INTERNAL RESISTANCE
Internal resistance is the resistance to current flow within the power source. It reduces the
potential difference (not EMF) across the terminals of the power supply when it is delivering a
current.

 The coil of a Dynamo has resistance.

 The chemical within the primary cell offers resistance to current flow.
The internal resistance is usually designated as r and it is simply represented as if it is in series
with the e.m.f.

Since this resistance r is inside the source, one can never separate it from the source. The
points A & B in the diagram represent the two terminals of the source. The potential difference
across the terminals of the source is called the 'Terminal Potential Difference’. The terminal p.d.
depends on the size of the current being drawn from the source.
V ab = E - I r
When no current is being drawn (i.e. if the source is on open circuit) from the source I = 0. The
terminal p.d. is equal to the e.m.f.
V ab = E

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Combination of cells
 When cells are connected in series the total e.m.f. and internal resistance can be given by the
equations: E  E1  E 2  .... and r  r1  r2  .... If one cell, E2, is turned in opposition to the
others then E  E1  E 2  .... but the total internal resistance remains unchanged.
 When similar cells are connected in parallel the total e.m.f. is E, the e.m.f. of one of the cells.
Although the total e.m.f. is unchanged, the combination will last longer than a single cell because
1 1 1
they share the total current. The total internal resistance is given as    ....
r r1 r2

ELECTRICAL POWER
Electrical Power is the rate of dissipation of electrical energy in the device
Remember that electrical energy W = VIt
Now P= W / t  VIt / t
So P = I V the unit of power is the Watt 1 W = 1 J s -1

If all the electrical energy is convert into heat by a device such a device is called a passive resistor.
If I is the current, R is the resistance
P  IV but V  IR
 P  I(IR)  P  I 2 R
Also
V V2
I  V / R  P   V  P 
R R

The formulae for power P = I² R & P= V² / R are only true when all electrically energy is converted to
heat while P = IV is true for all forms of energy.

MEASURING RESISTANCE
Using a voltmeter and an ammeter
A voltmeter measures potential difference. Voltmeters are placed in parallel with the resistance or
apparatus across which the p.d. has to be measured. An ideal voltmeter has infinite resistance so that it
will not draw any current and so gives an accurate measurement. In reality their resistance is very high of
the order of 50 k.
An ammeter measures electric current. Ammeters are placed in series with the resistance or other circuit
components through which the current is to be measured. An ideal ammeter has zero resistance so that
they do not alter the current being measured. In reality ammeters have very low resistances of the order of
1.

If the current flowing through a device and the p.d. across it are known then the resistance can be
V
calculated from R 
I .

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 1. circuit (1) is used when the resistance the voltmeter is much higher than R. In this case the
voltmeter measures the p.d. across R and because of its high resistance it draws negligible current
and as a result the ammeter gives a reading with a very small error.
2. Circuit (2) is used when R is high (i.e. comparable the resistance of the voltmeter). In this case
the voltmeter will draw an appreciable amount of current. The arrangement allows the current
flowing through R only to be measured. The voltmeter records the p.d. across both the ammeter
and R with a small error if the resistance of the ammeter is much less than R.

The Wheatstone Bridge

The Wheatstone bridge enables resistance to be measured more accurately than by the ammeter-voltmeter
method. The unknown resistance RX is compared with known resistances R1, R2 and R3 in the circuit
shown below.

The circuit is essentially two potential dividers in parallel. When no current flows
through the galvanometer, the bridge is said to be balanced.

This must mean that the potential at D is equal to the potential at B. As a result,

VAD  VAB and VDC  VBC

R1 R 3 R  R2
Under these conditions  so that R X  3
R2 RX R1

KIRCHHOFF’S RULES
There are two of them, and they are simply convenient applications of the laws of conservation of
charge and energy.

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 1. Kirchhoff’s first (Kirchhoff’s Current Law) or junction rule is based on the conservation of
charge (charges that enter a junction must also leave -none is lost or gained), and we
already used it in deriving the rule for parallel resistors. It states that At any junction point,
the sum of all currents entering the junction must equal the sum of all currents leaving the
junction.
2. Kirchhoff's second (Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law) or loop rule is based on the conservation of
energy. It states that At any instant the sum of all the voltage sources (e.m.f.’s) in any
closed circuit is equal to the sum of all the voltage drops (p.d.’s) in that circuit. The law
could also be stated as: At any instant the algebraic sum of all the voltages around any closed
circuit is zero.

When using the 2nd rule, each resistor within a particular loop must be traversed in the same
sense (either clockwise or anticlockwise). Any circuit component which has a current flowing through it in
the opposite direction to that in which the loop is being traversed must be regarded as having a negative
IR. The Examples below illustrates the use of Kirchhoff’s rules.

Question
Calculate the values of I1, I2 and I3 in Fig. (a) and Fig. (b)

(a)

(b)

Question

Find the current through the 10  resistor in the circuit below

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ELECTROSTATICS
Static electricity refers to the accumulation of excess electric charge in a region with poor electrical
conductivity (an insulator), such that the charge accumulation persists.
Electrostatics is the study of electric charges at rest.

Charge

 there are two kinds of charge – positive and negative

 like charges repel, unlike charges attract
 positive charges reside on protons which are in the nuclei of atoms while negative charges reside
on electrons which orbit the nuclei of these atoms
 Neutral atoms have equal numbers of protons and electrons. An object will be positively charged
if it has more protons than electrons; an object will be negatively charged if it has more electrons
than protons
 charge is quantized, meaning that charge comes in integer multiples of the elementary charge e
(i.e. the charge on a proton or an electron)
 charge is conserved (i.e. charge cannot be created or destroyed in any process, it is merely moved
around)

All matter is made up of atoms. These atoms are responsible for the electrical nature of matter. The main
particles in an atom are:

Particle Symbol Charge mass / u, Relative Location in the

mass Atom
Electron e e 0.00055 me in orbitals or
me shells around
the nucleus
Proton p +e 1.0073 1836me in the nucleus, so
mp these particles are
Neutron n neutral 1.0087 1839me called nucleons
mn

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The charge of one electron = - 1.6 x 10 –19 coulombs.
The atoms in matter can lose or gain electrons and become electrically charged. This excess charge may
either stay in one region on the material or it may cause a flow of charges throughout the material. Based
on the response to excess charges, matter may be grouped into two categories: insulators and conductors.

An insulator, also called a dielectric, is a material that resists the flow of electric current. All the
electrons in the atoms of electrical insulators are firmly bound to their nuclei. Removal or addition of
electrons to these insulators does not cause a flow of electrons in the material. The charge is confined to
the region where it was placed.

A conductor is a material which contains movable electric charges. In metallic conductors, such as
copper or aluminium, the valence electrons (outer shell electrons) in the atoms are loosely held by the
nuclei so that the electrons are free to move throughout the structure of the metal. If a metal gains
electrons, these electrons move about in the metal. If a metal loses electrons, this causes a redistribution
of the remaining electrons. As a result a charge on a conductor spreads over the entire surface.

Charging an object

In the early years of study of electric charge objects were charged using one of three methods
1. Charging by friction
2. Charging by induction
3. Charging by contact
In the process of Charging by friction electrons are transferred from one body to another. The body that
gains electrons acquires excess of negative charge. The body that loses electrons has an excess of
positive charge.

Charging by Friction
 Rubbing two different materials together, a process known as charging by friction (AKA
charging by rubbing), is the simplest way to give something a charge.
o This is what you do every time you drag your feet along a carpet so you can reach out
and zap someone's ear.
 Your feet in socks and the carpet are doing charging by friction.
 Since the two objects are made of different materials, their atoms will hold onto their electrons
with different strengths.
 As they pass over each other the electrons with weaker bonds are “ripped” off one material and
collect on the other material.

Example 1: Rub a piece of ebonite (very hard, black rubber) across a piece of animal fur. Explain what
happens.
The fur does not hold on to its electrons as strongly as the ebonite. At least some of the electrons will be
ripped off of the fur and stay on the ebonite. Now the fur has a slightly positive charge (it lost some
electrons) and the ebonite is slightly negative (it gained some electrons).The net charge is still zero
between the two… remember the conservation of charge.
No charges have been created or destroyed, just moved around.

Example 2: Rub a glass rod with a piece of silk. Explain what happens. This is the same sort of situation
as the one above. In this case the silk holds onto the electrons more strongly than the glass. Electrons are
ripped off of the glass and go on to the silk. The glass is now positive and the silk is negative.

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Common materials can be arranged in a chart called an “Electrostatic Series” according to their ability to
hold on to electrons. This provides a way to explain what happens when two materials are rubbed
together.
 To use the electrostatic series, you first need to find the two different materials that are being
rubbed.
o Whichever material is closer to the top is holding electrons tightly so it will have a
negative charge.
o The material closer to the bottom has a greater chance of losing electrons, so it will be
positively charged.

Electrostatic Series
sulphur
brass
copper
ebonite
paraffin wax
silk
lead
fur
wool
nylon
human hair
glass
your hands

Charging by Induction

The principles are:

 The charged object is never touched to the object being charged by induction.
 The charged object does not transfer electrons to or receive electrons from the object being
charged.
 The charged object serves to polarize (separate the charges in) the object being charged.
 The object being charged must be grounded (earthed) to become permanently charged; electrons
are transferred between the ground and the object being charged (either into the object or out of
it).
 The object being charged ultimately receives a charge that is opposite that of the charged object
which is used to polarize it.

In the illustration below, the neutral sphere was first earthed (grounded) by connecting a wire to earth.
Cutting the wire at the end ensures that the sphere retains a permanent charge.

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Charging by Contact
Charging by contact (Also called “charging by conduction”) requires that the two objects come into
actual physical contact with each other (they must touch). Once contact is made electrons will flow from
the more negatively charged object to the more positively charged object. At the end both objects will
have the same charge. The process is illustrated below:

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Practical Application of Electrostatic Phenomena
The forces of attraction between charged particles caused by static electricity are used in air pollution
control, xerography, automobile painting and a myriad of other application.

Pollution control

Static electricity is used in pollution control by applying a static charge to dirt particles in the air
and then collecting those charged particles on a plate or collector of the opposite electrical
charge. Such devices are often called electrostatic precipitators.

Smokestacks

Factories use static electricity to reduce pollution coming from their smokestacks. They give the
smoke an electric charge. When it passes by electrodes of the opposite charge, most of the smoke
particles cling to the electrodes. This keeps the pollution from going out into the atmosphere.

How a smokestack electrostatic precipitator works

Air fresheners

Some people purchase what are called air ionizers to freshen and purify the air in their homes.
They work on a similar principle as the smokestack pollution control. These devices strip
electrons from smoke molecules, dust particles, and pollen in the air, just as what happens in
creating static electricity.

These charged dust and smoke particles are then attracted to and stick to a plate on the device
with the opposite charge. After a while, much of the pollution is drawn from the air.

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Since charged particles will also stick to neutral surfaces, some of them can stick to the wall near
the ionizer, making it very dirty and difficult to clean.

Xerography

Your photocopier or Xerox machine uses static electricity to copy print to a page. This is done
through the science of xerography.

One version of this device electrically charges ink so that it will stick to the paper in the
designated areas. Another version of a photocopier uses charges to stick the ink to a drum, which
then transfers it to the paper.

Painting cars
Some automobile manufacturers use static electricity to help them paint the cars they make. The way this
works is that they first prepare the car's surface and then put it in a paint booth. Next, they give the paint
an electrical charge and then spray a fine mist of paint into the booth. The charged paint particles are
attracted to the car and stick to the body, just like a charged balloon sticks to a wall. Once the paint dries,
it sticks much better to the car and is smoother because it is evenly distributed.

Hazards Associated with Charging by Friction

Static electricity presents itself as both a nuisance or sometimes even as a risk in our daily lives.
 Getting shock when you touch a doorknob after rubbing your feet on a carpet.
 Having static cling on your clothes when ironing or removing clothes from the washing machine.
 Accumulation of dust on TV screens.
 The transfer of flammable liquids can be hazardous as there is the build up of static due to
charging by friction. This has the potential to discharge resulting in fire and subsequent loss of
containment. Certain non-polar liquids can be charged, e.g. while flowing through pipelines. This
is a danger when refuelling aircraft. The fuel rubs against the side of the hose and lots of charge
builds up. If the plane isn't earthed, the spark can cause the plane to explode. A thin copper wire
between the plane and earth is enough to carry the excess charge away. The rubber tyres are made
slightly conducting so that the charge leaks away harmlessly on touch-down.

 Intensive charging of the conveyed material and pipeline is possible during pneumatic powder
transfer which could result in:
o Electrostatic discharge between conductive parts (e.g. between metal flanges and a part of
the steel structure of the building);
o Accumulation of considerable charges into receiving containers.

 If clouds get charged up enough, you get lightning, the biggest spark of all.

N.B. although electrostatic phenomena usually involve small charges (a few micro-coulombs) they are
associated with large p.d. (thousands of volts).

Lightning
During thunderstorms a separation of positive and negative charges occur within a storm cloud. The tops
of the storm clouds are known to acquire an excess of positive charge and the bottom of the storm clouds
acquire an excess of negative charge.

20
As the static charge build-up in a storm cloud increases, the electric field surrounding the cloud
becomes stronger. Normally, the air surrounding a cloud would be a good enough insulator to
prevent a discharge of electrons to Earth. Yet, the strong electric fields surrounding a cloud cause
the gas molecules which compose air to break down into a soup of positive ions and free
electrons. The insulating air is transformed into a conductive medium.

A complete conducting pathway is mapped out and the lightning begins.

The enormous and rapid flow of charge along this pathway between the cloud and Earth heats the
surrounding air, causing it to expand violently. The expansion of the air creates a shockwave which we
observe as thunder.
The flow of charge through the air has a neutralizing effect on the original charge build-up. The static
charge in air typically breaks down in this way at around 30,000 volts-per-centimetre (30 kV/cm)
depending on humidity.

Protection from Lightning

The charge density on a charged conductor is greatest at highly curved regions such as sharp points. This
generates extremely intense electric fields around these points. The strong electric field breaks down the
gas molecules in the air causing the charge on the conductor to leak away. Lightning rods use this means
to protect buildings.

Additionally lightning strikes hit the highest points on a structure which would be the lightning rod. The
lightning rod and the attached cable and ground pole provide a low resistance pathway from the region
above the building to the ground below.

ELECTRIC FIELDS
An ELECTRIC FIELD

An electric field is any region where an electric charge experiences a force Or a region around a
charged body.
Electric fields are represents by field lines. The direction of an electric field is the direction in which a
positive test charge would move in the present of that field.
So the electric field lines are always directed radially outwards for positive charges and directed
radially inwards for negative charges.

The field patterns for opposite charges

21
The field pattern for like charges

Coulomb's Law
The magnitude of the electrical force between two charged objects is directly proportional to the
product of their charges and inversely proportional to the square of the separation distance
between the two objects.

Q 1Q 2
F
r2

Q 1Q 2
Fk
r2

1
k  9.0  10 9 Nm 2 C 2
4 o
o is called the permittivity of free space (a vacuum) and has a value of 8.854  10-12 C2N-1m-2. Another
unit of o is farad per metre (Fm-1). Permittivity is a measure of the capability of a medium to reduce
the force between two charges compared with the vacuum value. The permittivity of air is about
1.0005o so it is usually assumed that o is the value for air.
Relative permittivity or dielectric constant is defined as  r  
o
The relative permittivity of water is 81 and the force between two charges in water is 81 times weaker
than in a vacuum.

The attractive or repulsive interaction between any two charged objects is an electric force. Like any
force, its effect upon objects is described by Newton's laws of motion.
The electrostatic force is always directed along the line joining the charges.

The force is repulsive if there are like charges

22
The force is attractive if there are unlike charges.

It is very important to keep in mind that the equation for force F gives the force on a charge due to
only one other charge.
If several (or many) charges are present, the net force on any one of them will be the vector sum of
the forces due to each of the others.

FT = F1 + F2 + ....... + FN

EXAMPLE 1
Determine the electric force on the electron of a hydrogen atom exerted by the single proton (Q2 =
+e) that is its nucleus, when the electron "orbits" the proton at its average distance of 0.53 x 10 -  1 0
m.
SOLUTION:
We use coulombs eqn. with Q2 = + 1.6 x 10 19 C, Q1 =  Q2, and r = 0.53 x 10 10 m:

The minus sign means the force on the electron is toward the proton.
EXAMPLE 2
Three charged particles are arranged in a line, as shown in Figure below. Calculate the net electric
force on particle 3 (the -4.0 µC on the right) due to the other two charges.

23
SOLUTION
The net force on particle 3 will be the sum of the force F31 exerted by particle 1 and the force F 32 exerted
by particle 2: F = F 31 + F 32 . The magnitudes of these two forces are

Since we were calculating the magnitudes of the forces, we omitted the signs of the charges; but we
must be aware of them to get the direction of each force. Let the line joining the particles be the x-
axis, and we take it positive to the right. Then, because F31 is repulsive and F32 is attractive, the
direction of the forces is as shown in Fig. b: F31 points in the positive x direction and F32 points in
the negative x direction. The net force on particle is then

F=F32 +F31 =  4.5N + 0.4N =  4.1 N.

The magnitude of the net force is 4.1 N, and it points to the left. (Notice that the charge in the middle (Q2)
in no way blocks the effect of the other charge (Q1); Q2 does exert its own force, of course.)

EXAMPLE 3
Calculate the force on charge Q3 shown in Figure below due to the charges Q1 and Q2.

SOLUTION
The forces F31 and F 32 have the directions shown in the diagram since Q1 exerts an attractive force and Q2
a repulsive force. The magnitudes of F31 and F32 are (ignoring signs since we know the directions)

24
We resolve F31 into its components along the x and y axes, as shown:
F31x = F31 cos 30° = 120 N,
F31y = - F31 sin 30° = - 70 N.
The force F32 has only a y component. So the net force F on Q3 has components
Fx = F31x = 120N
Fy = F32  F31y = 330N  70N = 260 N.
Thus the magnitude of the net force is

and it acts at an angle  given by

tan  = Fy / Fx = 260 N / 120 N = 2.2,
So  = 65°

Electric Field Strength

An electric field can be defined as a region where an electric charge experiences a force.

Electric field strength is a vector quantity; it has both magnitude and direction.
The direction of the electric field vector is the direction that a positive test charge is pushed or pulled
when placed in the electric field.

The magnitude of the electric field E at a point is defined as the force exerted by the field per
unit charge placed at that point.

If the electric field strength is denoted by the symbol E, then the equation can be rewritten in symbolic
form as
F
E .
Q

The SI units of electric field are Newton/Coulomb or N/C. Another unit of E is volt per metre
(Vm-1).

It follows from the definition of electric field strength that the force exerted on a charge Q at appoint
where the field intensity is E is given by

F  EQ .

25
Field Intensity Due to a Point Charge

The force F on a test charge (q) due to a point charge (Q) in a vacuum may be given by
Coulomb's law as:

1 qQ
F
4 o r 2

If the expression for electric force as given by Coulomb's law is substituted for force in the above
E =F/q equation, a new equation can be derived as shown below.

F 1 Q
E 
q 4 o r 2
1 Q
That is E  . This expression shows that E decreases with distance from the point charge
4 o r 2
according to an inverse square law.

Electric field strength is a vector quantity.

If several (or many) charges are present, the net Electric field strength on any one of them will be
the vector sum of the Electric field due to each of the others.
ET = E1 + E2 + ……. + EN

Example 4

Two charged particles Q1 and Q2 are arranged in a line as shown in figure above. Calculate the electric
field at point P, 0.30 metres to the right of charge Q2, due to Q1 and Q2.
9.0  10 9  3.0  10 6
E P1   7.5  10 4 N / C
(0.60) 2
9.0  10 9  5.0  10 6
E P2   5.0  10 5 N / C
(0.30) 2
E  E P 2  E P1  5.0  10 5 N  7.5  10 4 N / C  4.25  10 5 N / C
The resultant then is 4.25105 N/C; Due East OR to the Right
Example 5

26
 ABC is an equilateral triangle of side 4.0 cm in a vacuum. There are point charges of 8.0C at A and B.
Find the electric field at C due to charges at A and B.

Solution

1 Q 8  10 6
E CA   9  10 9
 4.5  10 7 N / C
4 0 r 2 (4.0  10 2 ) 2
Which is the same as ECB since the charges are equal in size.
Vector x- component y component
ECA ECA x =  4.5107 cos 60 =  2.25107 N/C ECA y = 4.5107 sin 60 = 3.9  107 N/C
ECB ECB x = 4.5107 cos 60 = 2.25107 N/C ECB y = 4.5107 sin 60 = 3.9  107 N/C
R Rx = ECA x + ECB x = 0 N/C Ry = ECA y + ECB y = 7.8  107 N/C

R  E 2x  E 2y  02  (7.8 107 ) 2  7.8 107 N / C

The value of the directional angle :

 = tan-1 (Ry/Rx) = tan-1 () = 90
The resultant then is 7.8107 N/C; Due North OR 90 to AB
Electric Potential

The potential at point in an electric field is defined as the work done in bringing a unit positive charge
from infinity to the point. The Si unit of potential is the volt (V).

27
N.B.
1. The potential of a point at infinity is zero.
2. The potential energy of a charge Q at a point where the potential is V is given by E P  QV
1 Q
The potential V at a distance r from a point charge Q in a vacuum is given by V 
4 o r
Potential is a scalar quantity so the potential at a point due to several point charges is the algebraic sum of
the potentials due to each charge.

The Potential Difference between two points in an electric field is the work done in moving a unit
positive charge from the point at the lower potential to the point at the higher potential. The SI unit is the
volt (V). 1V = 1JC-1.
W  QV

Work done can be measured in a unit called electron-volt (eV). 1 eV is the energy gained by an electron
which has been accelerated through a p.d. of 1 volt.

Notes (i) Potential is a scalar quantity

(ii) The potential at a point due to a number of point charges is the algebraic sum of the
(separate) potentials due to each charge.

VT = V 1 + V 2 + + VN
(ii) It should be clear from the above equation that:
(a) the potential due to a positive charge is positive and ;
(b) that due to a negative charge is negative.
(iii) It is clear from the above equation also that all points, which are equidistant from a point
charge, are at the same potential.
(iv) A surface over which potential is constant is called an equipotential surface. If a point lies
on an equipotential surface, the electric field at that point is perpendicular to the
surface.)

Example 6

28
Charges of 1 nC, +2 nC, 3 nC and +4 nC are placed at points A, B, C and D respectively as shown.
Given that the diameter of the circle is 6 m, calculate the potential at O.
Solution
Remember:
1 Q
(i) V
4 0 r
(ii) Potential is a scalar quantity
(iii) The potential at a point due to a number of point charges is the algebraic sum of the (separate)
potentials due to each charge.
VT = V1 + V2 + + VN
So VO = VOA +VOB + VOC + VOD

1 QA 1 QB 1 QC 1 QD
VO    
4 0 r 4 0 r 4 0 r 4 0 r
since the distance of the charges from O is the same
Then


1
Q A  Q B  Q C  Q D 
4 0 r
1
 9  109   (1  10 3  2  10 3  3  10 3  4  10 3 )
3
VO  6  10 V
6

Relation between E and V

dV
The electric field strength at a point in an electric field is given by E   .
dx
dV/dx is called the potential gradient of the field.

In a uniform field E is constant in magnitude and direction at all points so that dV/dx is a constant. The
V
electric field strength between two charged parallel plates of separation d and p.d V is given by E   .
d

N.B.
 There is no charge within the material of a conductor
 At all points within the material of a conductor V is constant and E equals zero
 E is perpendicular to the surface of charged conductor and all the net charge is on the surface.

29
Capacitors
Capacitors are electrical components used to store charge. Their construction is simply two equal
area conducting plates, with an insulator (dielectric) sandwiched in between.

When the switch is turned to the left, there is an instantaneous flow of current. By the action of
the battery electrons move in a clockwise sense. They are taken from the lower plate and
deposited on the upper one.

In a very short time all motion ceases. The p.d. across the plates is now the same as that across
the battery, but in the opposite direction. With the positive of the battery connected to the
positive of the capacitor, no p.d. exists. So no current flows.

In this state the capacitor is said to be 'fully charged'. Charges on upper and lower plates are of
opposite type and equal in quantity.

Capacitance

Capacitance is the measure of a capacitor to store charge. The larger the capacitor the more
charge can be stored per volt of p.d. across the plates.
Q
C
V
where,

C is the capacitance in Farads (F)

Q is the charge in Coulombs (C)
V is the p.d. between the plates

The unit of capacitance is called the Farad.

By definition, a capacitor has a capacitance of 1 Farad when 1 Coulomb of charge is stored with
a p.d. of 1 volt across the plates.

Hence the units of Farads are Coulombs per volt (CV-1)

30
One Farad is too large a unit for ordinary circuits. Instead smaller derivative units are used, eg
microfarads (μF) and picofarads (pF).

NOTE: Although both plates of the capacitor are charged (one negative and the other positive), it
is the magnitude of one of these charges that is used to calculate capacitance. Capacitance is a
scalar quantity and it is always positive.

The Parallel Plate Capacitor

The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is related to its dimensions as follows: C   A

d
So the capacitance of a capacitor is:

 directly proportional to the area of the plates, A

 directly proportional to the permittivity of the dielectric,ε
 and inversely proportional to the plate separation, d.

Thus it is obvious that the capacitance of a capacitor may be increased without changing its
dimensions if the dielectric material is changed.

Relative Permittivity

The definition of relative permittivity is the ratio of the capacitance of a capacitor with a
dielectric to that of a capacitor without (i.e. free space).
C
r 
Co
Relative permittivity εr may also be expressed in terms of the permittivity of free space εo and
the permittivity of the dielectric being used.

r 
o

So that the permittivity of the material being used is ε = εr εo

Examples of dielectrics and their dielectric constants are given in table below:
Material Dielectric Constant

31
 Vacuum (free space) 1
Air 1.0005
Mica 3–6
Glass 5 – 10
Polythene 2.3
Perspex 2.6
Paper 3.8
Water 80

Capacitors in Parallel (Derivation of total capacitance)

Capacitors in parallel will increase the space available to store charge and will therefore increase the
capacitance of the combination

 The pd across each capacitor is the same as the total pd = V.

 QT = Total charge stored = Q1 + Q2 +Q3
 Using Q=VC
VCT = VC1 + VC2 + VC3
 Divide through by V gives CT  C1  C2  C3

Capacitors in Series (Derivation of total capacitance)

The battery removes charge Q- from plate 'a' and deposits it on plate 'f'. Plate 'a' is therefore left with a
charge Q+on its plates.
Each charged plate then induces an opposite charge in its opposing plate.
The central capacitor C2 has a positive charge on plate 'c' because electrons are removed from it to make
plate 'b' negative. Plate 'd' is made negative by induction with 'c'.

32
The p.d. across the capacitors can be given by
If we apply Kirchhoff’s second law to the circuit we get
V = Vab + Vcd + Vef

or

But C = Q/V

The total capacitance for capacitors arranged in series is thus

Energy Storage in a Capacitor

The potential difference across the plates of a capacitor is directly proportional to the charge stored on the
plates. This gives a straight line through the origin on a voltage-charge graph. The area under this graph
gives the energy stored in a Capacitor

As the area under the graph is a triangle,

area = ½ base x height.

33
Note: the energy used by the cell to charge the capacitor, W = QV, but the energy stored on the
capacitor = 1/2 QV. This means that half the energy is lost in the circuit as heat energy as the
capacitor is charged.

As capacitors are able to store energy, they can be used in back-up systems in electrical devices,
such as computers.

recall and use the equations for capacitor discharge;

 t 
Q  Q 0 exp  
 RC 
 t 
I  I 0 exp  
 RC 
 t 
V  V0 exp  
 RC 
The product RC (capacitance × resistance) which is seen in the formula is called the time
constant.
The units for the time constant are seconds.
If a capacitor is discharged for RC seconds, the fraction of charge left is
Q= Q0 e –RC/RC = Q0 e –1 = 0.37 Q0
So after RC seconds the charge and the voltage are 37 % of their original value.
The time constant, RC, is the time taken by the capacitor to discharge to 37% (i.e. e-1) of
its initial value when it discharges through a resistor.

34
Magnetic Fields and Magnetic Forces
RECALL:
 A magnetic field is a region in which a particle with magnetic properties experiences
a force. (OR the region round a magnet, where a magnetic force is experienced).

 The direction of a magnetic field is taken as the direction of the force on a north pole
placed in the field.

 The spacing between lines tells you about the strength of field - lines close
together mean strong field e.g. near the poles.

 A uniform field has constant strength and direction but these components vary from
place to place for a non-uniform field.

Magnetic Flux Density, B, represents the magnitude and direction of a magnetic field.
 The magnitude is high where the number of field lines per unit area is high
 The direction at a point is that of the tangent to the field line at a point
 It is a vector quantity
 The SI unit is the tesla, T.

The magnetic Flux,, through a region is the number of magnetic field lines passing through
that region. If flux  passes normally through area A, then the magnetic flux density B in that

area is given by B  . This means that the magnetic flux through that region is   BA .
A
 The SI unit of  is the Weber, Wb. 1T  1 Wbm 2 .

Magnetic field of current-carrying conductor

Around any conductor that has a current flowing through it there is a magnetic field.

Magnetic field of a long straight conductor

The magnitude of B at any point distance r from a long wire
can be given by
o I
B 
2r
Where μo is the permeability of free space and has the value
4π x 10-7Hm-1.

So B 1 r and B  I
N.B. If two straight current carrying wires are brought close together, their fields interact and a
force is produced between them. If the currents are in the same direction, there is a force of
attraction between them. If the currents flow in opposite direction, there is a repulsive force
between them.
 The direction of the field lines may be predicted by Maxwell’s corkscrew rule or by the right
hand grip rule.

35
Magnetic field of a flat coil

o I
The magnitude of B at the centre of a flat circular coil is given by B 
2r

Where r is the radius of the coil

Magnetic field of a solenoid

 The direction of the field lines may be predicted by the right hand grip rule. Here the curling
fingers point the direction of the current in the wires and the outstretched thumb points the
direction of the magnetic field.
 The magnitude of the magnetic flux density near the centre of a long solenoid is given by
B  o n I
Where n is the number of turns per unit length.

If a soft iron core were placed inside the solenoid it would cause the field lines to move closer
together and hence strengthen the field. In other words, the iron increases the magnetic
permeability inside the solenoid and this increases field strength.

Magnetic fields permeate different materials by different amounts so that iron, which is
ferromagnetic, becomes magnetized itself and so transmits magnetic fields many times better
than a vacuum. Relative permeability, μr, is a measure of the permeability of a material to
magnetic fields relative to that of a vacuum u0, so the permeability μ of the iron core may be
given as

  r  o

Thus, the flux density at the center of an iron core solenoid will be;

B  r o n I

Force on Conductor in Magnetic field

A conductor placed in a magnetic field experiences a force due to an interaction between two
fields. The interaction produces a resultant field which is stronger on one side of the conductor
than on the other. The conductor thus moves from the region of stronger field to the region of
weaker field.
The direction of the force is determined by Fleming’s Left hand Rule.

36
Experiments done by Ampere led to the conclusion that the force on a conductor is always at
right angles to the plane which contains both the conductor and the direction of the field
in which it is placed.
Factors affecting the magnetic force

Ampere showed that

F α sinθ where θ is the angle that the conductor makes with the field.

A simple current balance experiment may be used to examine the effects of I, B and l on the magnitude of F.

Here is an example:

The rod is held in a fixed position, so when a force acts up or down on it due to the current in the wire between the
magnets, either:

- the rod remains still and the magnets push down on the scales or

- the rod remains still and the magnets try to lift themselves up off the scales.

Either way, the reading on the scales will show how big this force is - so you have a measure of the force, F, due to
the magnetic field (B) and current (I).

The results of the experiment would indicate that:

Increased current, I, produces increased force on the balance (up or down).

F I

Increased length, l, of wire in the field produces increased force on the balance (up or down).

Fl

Finally, if you increase the strength of the permanent magnets, B, you will increase the size of the force
produced (for any particular value of current and length).

37
FB

So F  B I l sin 

Magnetic field strength, B

Magnetic field strength is often called magnetic flux density and is given the symbol ‘B‘.

“It’s defined as the force acting per unit current in a wire of unit length which is perpendicular to the
field.”

F
B
Il

It is measured in tesla, T. One tesla is the flux density of a uniform field when the force on a conductor
1m long, placed perpendicular to the field and carrying a current of 1A, is 1 N.

B is a vector Quantity.

Force on Charge Moving in Magnetic Fields

A moving charge constitutes an electric current. So if a charge moves through a magnetic field a
force will be exerted on it.
This force can be given by F  B I l where I  nAv e . So F  BnAv e l  Bev  nAl with nAl
being the number of electrons in the volume of wire being considered.

For an electron
F = Bev

In general
F = BQv

The Hall Effect

This is the development of an e.m.f across a current carrying conductor when a perpendicular
magnetic field is applied.
Consider a slab of metal carrying a current as shown:

The electrons experience a force equal to Bev and collect on one side of the metal.
A p.d. or emf opposes electron flow. The flow ceases when the emf reaches a value VH called
the Hall voltage.

38
 When the electrons are in equilibrium, the electric force is equal to the force produced by the
magnetic field.  E e  B e v

But E  V d where d is the width of the slab and the p.d can be represented by VH
VH e
  Bev
d

 VH  Bvd
But the drift velocity of the electrons is given by I =
nevA where A is the cross-sectional area of the
conductor of thickness t and n is the number of
electrons per unit volume.

A = td so v = I/netd

VH = BI/net
The Hall voltage is used
 In semiconductors to find whether the current flow is due mainly to positive or negative
charges (experimental investigation of the polarity of the Hall voltage will clarify this)
 To measure n, the charge density
 As a basis of a Hall probe, for measuring the flux density B of a magnetic field.

END

Problem Set

1. A horizontal straight conductor of fixed length and carrying a steady d.c current is
placed in a
uniform horizontal magnetic field. One end of the conductor is raised slowly and at a uniform
speed until it is vertical. If the conductor remained in the field at all times, sketch the graphs of
the variation of F with (i) θ and (ii) sin θ

2. A straight horizontal rod X, of mass 50g and length 0.5m, is placed in a uniform
horizontal
magnetic field of 0.2T perpendicular to X. Calculate the current in X if the force acting on it
just balances its weight. Draw a sketch showing the directions of the current, field and force.
(g=10Nkg-1)

3. A strip of metal 1.2cm wide and 1.5 x 10-3 cm thick carries a current of 0.50A along its
length
If it is assumed that the metal contains 5 x 1022 free electrons per cm3, calculate the mean
drift
velocity of these electrons (e= 1.6 x 10-19 C). The metal foil is placed normal to a magnetic
field of flux density B. Explain why, in these circumstances, you might expect a p.d. to be
developed across the foil.

39
4. The diagram shows a straight wire Y carrying
a current I.

On a copy of this diagram draw the magnetic

field pattern close to the wire as seen when
looking from above. (3)

Calculate the current in this wire when the

field strength due to the wire alone at a point
12 cm from the centre of the wire
is 1.4 x 10-5 T. (2)

A second wire Z, carrying a current of 2I, is placed parallel and

12 cm from wire Y.

The diagram shows the direction of the force Fz exerted on the

second wire Z.

Add to a copy of the diagram an arrow showing the direction of the

current 2I in the second wire Z. (1)

A force Fy is also exerted on the first wire Y.

Add to the same diagram another arrow showing the direction of
this force. Label it Fy. (1)

What is the ratio Fy : Fz of the two forces? (1)

State two methods by which the magnitude of the force Fy could be

reduced. (2)

END OF PROBLEM SET

40
Hall Probe
The measurement of large magnetic
fields on the order of a Tesla is often
done by making use of the Hall Effect.
A thin film Hall probe is placed in the
magnetic field and the transverse
voltage (on the order of microvolt) is
measured. Sometimes a thin copper
film of thickness d on the order of 100
micrometers is used for a Hall probe.

Charge Carriers in the Hall Effect

The Hall Effect is a conduction phenomenon which is different for different charge carriers. The
Hall voltage has a different polarity for positive and negative charge carriers, and it has been
used to study the details of conduction in semiconductors and other materials which show a
combination of negative and positive charge carriers. The Hall Effect can be used to measure the
average drift velocity of the charge carriers by mechanically moving the Hall probe at different
speeds until the Hall voltage disappears, showing that the charge carriers are now not moving
with respect to the magnetic field.

Assignment
Explain the principle of the electromagnet and discuss its uses in doorlocks,
buzzers, switches and other applications.

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Experiments performed have shown that a changing magnetic field can give rise to a current as a
result of the production of an e.m.f.
The scientists pioneered the experimental work were Joseph Henry and Michael Faraday. Today
very useful laws exist in their names.
The phenomenon where an e.m.f is produced (e.m.f, known as the induced e.m.f) by a changing
magnetic field is referred to as electromagnetic induction.

41
 SIMPLE EXPERIMENT TO DEMONSTRATE THE E.M.F
PRODUCTION:

Observations:

 When the magnet or the coil is at rest, as in Fig. (c), no deflection in the galvanometer

 When the magnet is moved towards the coil or coil towards the magnet, as in (a), the
galvanometer shows a deflection (needle deflects to right).

 When the magnet is moved away from the coil or coil away from the magnet, as in (b),
the galvanometer shows a deflection (needle deflects to left).

These observations suggest that when the magnetic field through the coil is changing, a
current flows in the wire. For a current to flow, a source of e.m.f must exist.

This means that the magnetic field change first produces an e.m.f. which generates the current.
This e.m.f is known as an induced e.m.f., as the e.m.f is not associated with any real
conventional source such as battery. The process (magnetic field change) causes the coil to
acquire an e.m.f.

In General:
If a conductor is placed in a changing magnetic field or the conductor is moved through
a uniform field at right angles to the direction of the field, an e.m.f. will be induced
across the ends of the conductor. If the ends of the conductor are then connected to
give a closed circuit, a current will flow in this circuit.

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Magnetic Flux
The magnetic flux through a small plane surface is the product of the flux density
normal to the surface and the area of the surface.
  BA

The SI unit of magnetic flux is the Weber, Wb. If B = 1T and A = 1m2 then Φ is defined
as 1 Wb.

In general, if the normal to the area A makes an angle θ with B then the flux is
  BA cos 

If Φ is the flux through A of a coil of N turns, the total flux through it, called the flux
linkage, is NΦ since the same flux link each of the N turns.
Example:

What is the flux linkage in a coil of 15 turns and area 25cm2 in a field of strength 5T?

Faraday's Law
The induced e.m.f. is directly proportional to the rate of change of flux or the rate
of flux cutting.
E  N 
d
dt

Ek
d
N 
dt

When the flux through a one turn coil is reduced from 1Wb to zero in 1s the e.m.f.
induced is 1V, thus k = 1.
E  N 
d
dt

Lenz's Law:
The direction of the induced current is such that it opposes the flux change
causing it.
An induced current has a direction such that the magnetic field of the current opposes
the change in the magnetic field that produces the current.

ALTERNATIVE: the direction of the induced e.m.f. is such that it tends to oppose
the change causing it, and does oppose it if an induced current flows.

The induced magnetic field inside any loop of wire always acts to keep the magnetic flux
in the loop constant. In the examples below, if the B field is increasing, the induced
field acts in opposition to it. If the field is decreasing, the induced field acts in the
direction of the applied field to try to keep it constant.

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Field is increasing in the loop – Magnet Field is decreasing in the loop –
is pushed into coil Magnet is pulled out of coil

The induced current flows in a direction

The induced current flows in a direction
which makes the coil behaves like a
which makes the coil behaves like a
magnet with a south pole to the right,
magnet with a north pole to the right,
attracting the bar magnet (opposing its
repelling the bar magnet (opposing its
motion).
motion).

The induced current flows in a direction

The induced current flows in a direction
which makes the coil behaves like a
magnet with a south pole to the right,
repelling the bar magnet.
N.B. The induced field opposes the applied
B field in each case.
which makes the coil behaves like a
magnet with a north pole to the right,
attracting the bar magnet.
N.B. The induced field acts in the direction
of the applied B field in each case.

In the examples a force is set up on the bar magnet opposing its motion. Work as to be
done to overcome this force. This work provides the electrical energy of the current (the
energy is eventually dissipated as heat in the coil).

 Work done against opposing force  Electrical energy produced

This indicates that Lenz’s law is a consequence of the Principle of Conservation of

Energy.

If we incorporate Lenz’s law into the mathematical expression for Faraday’s law it
becomes:
E   N 
d
dt

EMF INDUCED IN A STRAIGHT CONDUCTOR

Consider a straight conducting rod of length l moving with a constant velocity v in a

magnetic field B.

44
Because of the motion, a flux change occurs and an e.m.f gets induced. What are the
polarities? Top end +ve and bottom end –ve.

What is the magnitude of the induced e.m.f?

If in t seconds the distance moved is x, then the flux cut,   B A  B l x

 Blx x
But E    Blv since v 
t t t

ALTERNATIVELY: In one second, the distance moved by the rod is v.

BA Blv
Therefore, Rate of flux cutting    Blv
t 1
 E  B l v When both l and v are 90o to B. E = 0when either l or v is parallel to B

This induced e.m.f. E produces a current, I, which flows round the circuit. By Fleming’s
right-hand rule the current is in the direction shown. The rod is carrying a current and is
in a magnetic field, there will be a force (BI l) acting on it. Fleming’s left-hand rule
predicts that this force, F, is in the opposite direction to the motion of the rod (this
conforms to Lenz’s law).
The rod is not accelerating so the force moving it is equal to BI l. From the principle of
conservation of energy,
Work done per second by force moving the rod = Electrical energy produced per second
F  v  EI
That is BI l  v  E I
 B l v  E which we already deduced from flux changes.

Reason for development of e.m.f

45
When the conductor moves to right, the free electrons also move to right. Because of
the motion electrons experience a force downwards and this causes the electrons to
shift to the bottom end leaving a surplus of +ve charges at the top end. So the top end
shall be +ve and bottom –ve.
The charge separation stops when the magnetic force balances the electrostatic force;
On electrons magnetic force is down and the electrostatic attraction is up.
On positive charges magnetic force is up and the electrostatic attraction is down.
When the conductor is in contact with conducting rails as shown (or if the ends are
connected to wires so as to form a closed circuit) a current flows as indicated by the red
arrow.
** The e.m.f exists as long as the conductor moves. If v =0 then E = 0.

APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

GENERATORS
A generator is a device for converting mechanical energy into electrical energy. The electrical
current to a load is via a commutator for a dc generator or slip rings for an ac generator.
Basic ideas can be understood by thinking about a coil rotating in a uniform magnetic field.

46
 Consider a coil of area A with N turns of wire rotating at a constant angular velocity in a
uniform magnetic flux density B. As the coil rotates, it cuts through the lines of flux. Another
way to express this is to say that the flux linking the coil is changing.

At what point is the rate of flux-cutting greatest? (When it is horizontal in the diagram above;
when it is vertical, the rate of flux cutting is instantaneously zero.)
dB
Rate of flux cutting = induced E  N A with a maximum value, when the coil is parallel to
dt
the field.

AC Generator

TRANSFORMERS
A transformer is a device for altering the magnitude of an alternating voltage.
It has primary and secondary windings on an iron core which is made from E shaped
laminations, interleaved so that the magnetic flux does not pass through air at all.

When an alternating e.m.f. EP is applied to the primary windings it sends an alternating current
through it. This sets up an alternating flux in the core of magnitude BA. This induces an
alternating e.m.f. in the secondary ES.

The linkages of the primary and secondary coils with the flux  are:
 P  N P BA  S  N S BA

d S dB
The magnitude of the e.m.f. induced in the secondary coil is E   NS A
dt dt
The changing flux also induces a back-e.m.f. in the primary, whose magnitude is
d P dB
E  NPA
dt dt

47
The voltage applied to the primary is used to overcome the back-e.m.f. EP, if we neglect the
resistance of the wire. Therefore it is equal in magnitude to EP which is applied to the primary.
Emf induced in secondary E S N S
  
Voltage applied to primary E P N P

So the transformer steps voltages up or down according to its ‘turns-ratio’.

When the p.d. is stepped up by a transformer, the current is stepped down by approximately the
same ratio. We can show this by applying the principle of conservation of energy to an ideal
transformer (one that is 100% efficient)

i.e. Power in primary  Power in the secondary

ES I P
 E P  I P  ES  I S Or 
EP I S

A real transformer is not 100% efficient and energy losses occur due to:
 Resistance of the windings (I2R heat losses occur). This could be minimized by using
thick wires.
 Eddy currents. The alternating magnetic flux induces eddy currents in the iron core. The
induced current attempt to reduce the magnetic flux thus dissipating some of the input
power as heat. This is reduced by using laminated cores
 Hysteresis. The magnetization of the core is periodically reversed by the alternating field.
The rate at which the magnetization is reversed is slower than the rate at which
alternating field is changing. This causes some of the input power to be dissipated as
heat. The loss may be minimized by using a soft magnetic material such as mumetal.
 Flux leakage. This occurs when the flux due to the primary coil does not completely link
with the secondary coil. Usually as a result of air gaps in the core.

48