Current and its direction.

Current
The rate of flow of charge in any specific direction is called current. If Q
charge flows through a conductor in time t then current is

If one coulomb of charge flows through a conductor in one second then the
current in the conductor is said to be one ampere.

Direction of Current:
Before the discovery of electron it was considered that current is due to the
flow of positive charge. So, the direction of current was assumed to be from
positive terminal of battery to the negative terminal of the battery. Later
electron was discovered and it was obvious that current is due to the flow of
electrons from negative terminal to the positive terminal of the battery.
However, till date we assume the direction of current from positive terminal to
the negative terminal. This direction of current is called conventional direction
of current.
 Direction of flow of current

Current Carriers
In metals large number of free electrons are available. These free electrons
carry negative charges. The flow of these charges contributes current. In case
of electrolytes the positive and negative ions are responsible for current
through them. In case of semiconductors the combined motion of electrons
and hole gives current.

Types of current
DC (Direct Current) : The current whose magnitude and direction remains
same throughout the flow of current is called DC.
e.g.: current due to a battery is DC current.
AC (Alternating Current) : The current whose magnitude and direction
changes continuously and periodically is called AC current.
e.g.: current due to a AC generator is AC current

Current Density (J)

The flow of current per unit area held perpendicularly to the flow of current is
called current density. Current density is defined for any point in the
conductor.
if I current flows across area A then current density is given by

The direction of J is along the direction of current. Its unit is ampere/m2

Mechanism of Conduction of current in metal

In any metallic conductor large no. of free electrons are available these
electrons are in random motion as a result of which their average velocity is
zero and there is no net flow of electron so current is zero.

When the conductor is connected to a battery, an electric field is setup in the

conductor and the electrons experience electrostatic force and accelerate in
opposite direction of electric field. These electrons collide with the
neighbouring atoms and ions. Due to continuous collision their average
acceleration becomes zero and electrons acquire constant average velocity
called drift velocity.

Hence the constant average velocity acquired by the electrons in any

conductor subjected to an electric field is called drift velocity.

Expression for drift velocity

The drift velocity is the average velocity that a particle, such as an electron,
attains due to an electric field.
Consider a section of a metallic conductor of length l and cross-section area
A. Let n be the no. of electrons per unit volume of the conductor. Then,
volume of the conductor = Al

no .of electrons in this volume = nAl

Total charge (Q) = nAel; where e is and electric charge.

On connecting a battery of potential V, Q charge flows through the conductor

in time t. then current is

Ohm’s Law
It states, the current passing through any conductor is proportional to the
potential difference applied across the conductor provided that physical
condition (mechanical strain, temperature) of the conductor remains
unchanged.

Verification of Ohm’s Law

Ohm’s law can be verified by using a simple circuit as shown in fig. aside. A
resistance R is connected in a series to a battery, ammeter and a rheostat. A
voltmeter is connected in parallel across a fixed resistance R. When the key is
closed, I current flows in the circuit and voltmeter and ammeter shows
reading. By adjusting rheostat at different position different value of V and A
are obtained. These values are noted and plotted on a graph paper and the
graph shown below is obtained.

Here a straight line passing through origin is obtained. This graph shows V is
proportions to I which is Ohm’s Law. Hence Verified.

Resistance and Conductance

The opposition offered by any conductor for the flow of current is called
resistance. Its unit is ohm and denoted by Ω.
Cause of resistance

When an electric field is applied to any conductor the electrons start to move
in a specific direction. However, they continue colliding with neighbouring
atoms and ions. These continued collision slow down the motion of electrons
consequently, the current gets lowered. So, the cause of resistance in any
conductor is the no. of collision of electrons with neighbouring atoms and ions.

Resistance of any conductor depends on dimension (length and breadth) and

temperature.

Specific Resistance or Resistivity:

Resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to the length of conductor.

Thus, resistivity of a conductor is the resistance of the conductor of unit cross-

section area and unit length.
Resistivity is dependent of the dimension of the conductor. It depends on the
nature of the material. So, it is the characteristics of any material.

Conductance:
The reciprocal of resistance is called conductance.
Its unit is /ohm or Siemen.
Conductivity:

The reciprocal of resistivity is called conductivity.

Its unit is /ohm m.

Relation between Current density (J) and Conductivity (σ)

Let I current flow through a conductor when applied potential difference V volt.
then, from ohm’s law,

Combination of Resistors
Series Combination
If resistors are connected end to end such that same current flows in each
resistor but different potential difference is observed across then such
combination is called series combination.
 Resistors in series
Let, R1, R2 and R3be the three resistors connected in series to a battery of volt
V. Same current I flows in each resistors while V1, V2 and V3potential drops are
observed across R1, R2 and R3respectively.

Parallel Combination
If one of the ends of resistors are connected to a common point and the rest
of the ends to another common point such that same potential difference is
observed across each resistor but different current in each resistor than such
combination is called parallel combination.

Resistors in parallel
Let, R1, R2 and R3be the three resistors connected in parallel to a battery of
volt V. Current I1, I2 and I3 flows across resistance R1, R2and R3 while potential
drops V is observed across each resistor. Then,

The equivalent resistance is smaller than the smallest individual resistors

connected in parallel.
Some Rules
i. If identical resistors each of resistance R are connected in series
than the equivalent resistance is “Req = nR” so we get maximum resistance
from the given resistors when we connect them in series.
ii. If two identical resistors each of resistance R are connected in
parallel then,

iii. If two resistors of resistance R1and R2 are connected in parallel

then,

iv. If two resistors one big and next small are connected in parallel
then,
 v. The ratio of maximum resistance to the minimum resistance
obtained by connecting n identical resistors in series
and in parallel is n 2</sup >.

Alternating current (AC)

Alternating current or e.m.f is the one whose magnitude varies with time and
direction reverses periodically. The current in the circuit supplied with
alternating e.m.f is called AC and the circuit itself is called AC circuit.

The instantaneous value of ac is given by: and

Where I0 and E0 are the peaks value of alternating current and e.m.f called
amplitudes.
If f be the frequency then we have;
W=2πf and f=1/T where T is the time period of AC.

Advantages of ac

• Generation, transmission and distribution of AC is economical and

easier than that of DC.
• AC can be easily converted into DC by a rectifier.
• AC can be controlled more easily by using a choke coil.
• AC can be transmitted from one place to another by the use of a
transformer.
• AC instruments are stronger and easier to use.

Disadvantages of ac

• AC is very dangerous because of its attractive nature and also because

it’s maximum or peak value is √2 times its effective or average value.
• AC cannot be used in the electrolysis process such as electroplating,
electro refining, electro typing. These processes strictly demand DC.
• The distribution of AC in the conducting wire is not uniform. The
concentration of the current is more on the surface of the wire and less
in the body of wire. This effect is called screen effect.
• Marking on the AC scales is not uniform or equidistant.