1.

Electric Current

Defined as the movement of

electric charges through a
conductor or electrolyte; it is equal
to the quantity of electric charge
that flows pass a fixed point per
unit time.
S.I. unit : Ampere (A)

Definition of the Ampere :

1 Ampere is the steady current that flows through 2

straight, parallel conductors of infinite length, having
negligible circular cross-sections and placed 1 m between
one another in vacuum such as to produce a force of 2 x
10-7 N m-1 between them.
 2. Electric Charge :

Unit : 1 Coulomb is the quantity of charge that

flows through a fixed point in a circuit when a
current of 1 Ampere flows for 1 second.

i.e. Q = It

Note : The charge of 1 electron, e = 1.6 x 10-19 C

1 C = 6.2 x 1018e
3. Velocity of current carriers (e) :-
A m2
A = Area of cross-section of conductor
x n = Number of electrons (e-) per unit
volume
•Number of free electrons in a
conductor is a constant.
Y • i.e. number of e- entering Y=
number of e- exiting X.
m
V
I
Let the min velocity of each e- = V m s-1
e-
Then, no. of e- thro’ Y in 1 second = no. of e- between XY of length V m
= nAV

 I = nAVe where e = charge of an electron.

 Note : The actual value of V is very small.
Example : Lets say I = 1A, A = 2.0 x 10-7 m2 ( approx = ½
mm diameter )
n = 1029 free electrons / cm3 for copper
I
 v
nAe
v  3.110  4 m s 1
v is called drift velocity

Question :

If the drift velocity of electrons in a conductor is

this low, why is it that a filament lamp in a room
lights up immediately when the switch is on?
 4. Electrical Energy :
Electromotive Force (e.m.f.) of a battery is the energy that is
converted to electricity for each unit of charge that flows
through the battery.
Potential difference (p.d.) between 2 points is defined as the
‘electric pressure’ that pushes the electric current from one
point of higher potential to another point of lower potential.
S.I. Unit for potential difference is the Volt:
1 Volt is the p.d. between 2 points such that the energy
converted to other forms is 1 Joule per Coulomb of
charge that flowed form one point to the other.

i.e. E
V or E  QV
Q
where E  energy, V  p.d. , Q  quantiti of charge.
 Note : The p.d. between the terminals of a battery
is usually less than its e.m.f.. Why?
Answer: because of internal resistance of battery.

Power :

Power of a device is the amount of

energy it uses per second.

E
power, p 
t
Unit of P is Watt(W) ; J s -1
 5. Resistance and Ohm’s Law

A steady current that flows through a conductor, which is

itself not the site of an e.m.f., is directly proportional to
the p.d. across its ends if the temperature and other
physical quantities are kept constant.

I  p.d .
I V
V
or  constant ( R)
I
where R is called resistance
Note : Ohm’s law cannot be proven using voltmeter and
ammeter.
Because these meters are calibrated base on Ohm’s law.
Therefore measuring devices using magnetic effect is used.
e.g. Current is measured by using electric balance.

Ohmic conductors (linear) :

I I

0 V -V 0 V
-V

Pure metal CuSO4 solution

 Non Ohmic Conductors :

I I I

-V 0 V -V 0 V -V 0 V

Junction Diod Neon gas Vacuum tiub Diod

-V 0 V

Dilute H2SO4
 Internal Resistance of cells :

There is internal resistance within a cell. Therefore energy is

required to send a current through the material of the cell
itself.
Thus, when a cell with e.m.f. E is supplying a current I, the
p.d. V across its terminals decreases from E by an amount
that is directly proportional to the current I.

 E  V   I
E  V   Ir ....................r  constant  internal resistance

E  V  Ir ...................V  p.d. across terminals of cell

E  IR  Ir
Question :
A dry cell, E = 1.5 V and internal resistance 2 is
connected to a lamp with resistance 5.5 . What is the p.d.
across the cell ?

Answer :
E  I (R  r)
1.5  I (5.5  2) Cell r = 2
1.5
I A
7.5
V  IR R=5.5
1.5
  5.5V lamp
7.5
 Class Activity

Resistances in series :
R  R1  R2  R3

Derive these two

relationship
Resistances in parallel :

1 1 1 1
  
R R1 R2 R3
 6. Resistivity of material :

The resistance of a conductor at constant temperature is

 Length of conductor (l)
 Area of cross section of conductor (A)

i.e., l
R
A
l
R   ..................   resistivity of material
A
RA

l

Unit of  is m
7. Conductance and Electrical Conductivity of materials :
1
Conductance (G) : G
R

Unit of G is -1 or Siemens

Conductivity (σ) :  
1


Unit of σ is -1m-1
 8. Current Density (J) :

The current density in a conductor is defined as the

current per unit cross-sectional area of the conductor.

I
i.e. , J
A

Where I is the electric current carried by the conductor

and A is the area of cross-section of the conductor
 1 1
 
 RA l
l

RA
V VA
I 
R l
I V

A l
 J  E where E is electric field strength
V
or potential gradient,
l
 Analogy between thermal conductivity
and electrical conductivity.
Q
Thermal Conduction :  k  temperature gradient
At

Electrical Conduction: J  E
I
 E
A
Q
   potential gradient
At
9. Resistivity and Conductivity on the simple electron theory.

Lets say an electric field E acts upon a metal of length l and

area of cross-section A.

Current that flows is I  nAve .........(1)

Base on the simple electron theory,

e- accelerate from zero velocity to v between collisions.

 v  u  at where a  acceleration
t  time between collisions
v  drift velocity
Now ,
F Ee Ve
a   .........(2)
m m lm
where F  eE is the force on the electron
V
E  , a  acceleration, m  mass of e - , l  length of wire
l
Substituting (2) into (1),

I  nAate
Ve Vne 2tA
I  nAet  
lm ml
V ml
 R   2 ............(3)
I ne tA
 ml
From R  2 ............(3)
ne tA
It means when Temp. increases, atomic vibrations
increases, then t decreases . Therefore R increases
with temperature.

Also, l
since R 
A
l ml
  2
A ne tA
m
  2 Note: A more satisfactory
ne t description of electron
ne 2t motion is given by the
 
m Quantum theory.
 10. Power:
2
2 V
Electrical power is given by P  VI  I R 
R
Electrical energy, E  Pt
Joule’s Law: The rate of production of heat by an
electric current that flows thro’ a conductor (resistor) at
a fixed temperature is directly proportional to the
current squared.
P  I2
The kilowatt-hour (kWh) is the quantity of energy used in 1 hr.
by a device of power 1 kW.

Question : What is the value of 1 kWh in Joules ?

 11. Kirchhoff’s Law
First Law: The sum of all the currents flowing into a point
(junction) is equal to the sum of the currents flowing out of
the junction.
i.e. The algebraic sum of currents at a junction
of an electric circuit is zero.

I  0
Example: I1  I 2  I 3  I 4  I 5  0

Current flowing into junction, positive

I2
I5

Current flowing out of junction, negative

I4 or
I1
Numerically , I1+I2 = I3+I4+I5
I3
Second Law: For any closed loop within a circuit, the
algebraic sum of all the voltage-drops is equal to the
algebraic sum of all e.m.f.s in the loop.

 IR   E
Example:
Cell
E1 I R1

I E1-E2 = IR1 +IR2

R2
E2 I
lamp
Cell
Example:

D 30V, 1 internal resistance

Dynamo I1
I1
I2
P Q
I2 B
24V, 0.5 I1+I2
I1+I2

R = 13

Calculate the value of the current in each part of the circuit.

Answer
ANSWER :
Lets say the currents thro’ the dynamo and battery
are respectively I1 and I2 in the directions shown.
Applying First Law at P: current thro’ R = I1 + I2
Applying Second Law to loop DPRQD:
1  I1   13  I1  I 2   30
14 I1  13I 2  30 ..............(1)
Applying Second Law to loop BPRQB:
0.5 I 2  13I1  I 2   24
13I1  13.5 I 2  24 ......( 2)

From (1) and (2), I1 = 4.6A ; I2 = -2.7A

I2 = negative means actual direction of current is opposite

to direction shown in diagram.
Also battery is being charges up by the dynamo. See diagram
12. Measurements by Potentiometer and Wheatstone Bridge.
The Potentiometer ( used for accurate measurement,
unobtainable by pointer instruments)
E
X
l
A B
VAC C

Principle : Consists of : uniform wire AB (constantan), (~ 1m long).

accumulator (X) maintains a steady I.

VAC  l for any point C between AB

 E
X
C
A B

E’ - 0
+
Y G

Let e.m.f. of cell Y be E’ < VAB

The slider (jockey) placed at B will cause current I’ to flow

- 0 +
 thro’ AYB 
 E
X
C
A B

E’ - 0
+
Y G

Let e.m.f. of cell Y be E’ < VAB

0
- +
Slider placed at C , current I’’ will flow towards A 
Note : If there is no change in direction of deflection of the
galvanometer when placed at A and B,  possible
mistakes are
(i) Emf of cell Y > VAB
(ii)Circuit connected wrongly (e.g. +ve of Y to - of X)
 Comparison of E.M.F. of cells :

E
X Precaution: Run the slider along
l2
l1 C D AB until current across Galvo.
A B is zero.

E1 - 0 i.e. no deflection.
+
Y1 Do not scrape along the wire
E2 G
0 AB because uniformity would
- +
be destroyed.
Y2 G
At zero deflection, i.e. at C,
VAC = emf E1 of the cell Y1 …………(i)
Since no current flow thro’ the Galvo.

Similarly for the other cell Y2 of emf E2,

at balance point, VAD = E2 ….............(ii)

(i ) E1 VAC l1
   .......iii  [V  l ]
(ii ) E2 VAD l2
 Accuracy of the potentiometer :

When used to compare emfs of cells, no errors are introduced by

the internal resistance because no current flow thro’ the cells at the
balance point.
More accurate than normal electrometer instrument.
Accuracy of potentiometer is limited by :-
Non-uniformity of the slide-wire
Uncertainty of the balance point
Errors in measuring the length of wire from A to
the balance point.
(~ error 0.5mm. 10 times less than normal instrument)
does not depend on accuracy of galvo but on its sensitivity.
 Uses of the Potentiometer :

1) To measure E.M.F.

Using a std. cell ( Say E1 is e.m.f. of standard cell)

l2
From (iii), E2  E1
l1
Valid only for const. current flow thro’ wire AB

Note: to check the current is const. check the balance point

with std. cell before and after balancing the unknown cell.
2) To measure internal resistance :
Acc Acc
I I

lE lv
A B A B

r r
E E
R
v
(i) (ii)
Let r = internal resistance
R = external known resistance
(i) Without R → E  lE
(ii) With R → V  lv
Since E  Ir  V
 E  Ir  lv
E  Ir lv

E le
Rr
I
R  r  lv
Ir lE
lv R
 
lE Rr
 lE 
r  R  1
 lV 
Comparison of Resistance :
Assume the current I flowing thro’
Acc R1 and R2 to be the same. (fixed
using rheostat).
For R1:
l1
A B At balance point, V1  R1 ; V1  l1
v1
Replace R1 by R2 :
R1 At balance point, V2  R2 ; V2  l2
I
A
Y rheostat Ammeter
V1 l1 R1
Since  
V2 l2 R2
 the 2 resistors can be compared.
 Wheatstone Bridge :
I Accurate method of measuring resistance
B
I1 I2 P,Q are fixed known resistances
P Q
IG X is unknown resistance
A G C
I1 I2 R is variable known resistance.
R X
D At balance point (obtained by varying R)
I IG = 0

I = I1 + I 2
P R QR
  X
Q X P
Explanation :

When IG = 0
VBA = VBC i.e. A and C have same
potential.
VDA = VDC

VBA VBC
 
VDA VDC
I1 P I 2 Q
i.e. 
I1 R I 2 X
P R
 
Q X
The Slide-wire (metre) Bridge : A simple Wheatstone Bridge.

X R (known)

A B
l1 l2

At balance point,

l1
X R
l2
Note :
More accurate measurement can be obtained by
exchanging the positions of X and R and find the balance
point.

*
Galvanometer is a sensitive current reading meter.
Therefore a high resistance (shunt) is connected in series with
it until a near balance point is found on the wire. The resistor is
removed and the final balance point found.