CLASS 12 - PHYSICS Chapter 3 : Current Electricity

(1) Electric current :

• Electric current is defined as the rate of flow of the electric charge
through any the area of cross-section of the conductor i.e I=q/t
• If the charge flow is varying, then instantaneous current at any instant
(t )is
I(t) =
SI unit of the current is Ampere (A)
(2) Current density (j) :

• The current density at a point in the conductor is defined as the current

per unit cross-section area. j =I / A
• Direction of current density is same as the direction of conventional
current
• Note that current density is a vector quantity unlike electric current
• Unit of current density is Ampere/meter2 (Am-2)

(3) Ohm's Law and Resistance :

• Statement of Ohm's Law

Current (I) flowing through a conductor is always directly proportional to
thepotential difference (V) across the two ends of the conductor provided
temperature and physical conditions remain the same
Mathematically , V α I , V=IR ------------------(1)
Where constant of proportionality R is called the electric resistance or
simply resistance of the conductor
• R = V/I; Thus electric resistance is the ratio of potential difference across
the two ends of conductor and amount of current flowing through the
conductor
• Electric resistance of a conductor is the opposition offered by the
conductor to the flow of the current through it.
• SI unit of resistance is ohm (Ω) where
• Resistivity or specific resistance (ρ ) : ρ = RA / L

(4) Relation between resistivity and current density :

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 V = IR = I ρ L / A (R=ρL/A ) , ρ = RA/L , R = V/ I
ρ = (V/I)(A/L) = (V/L) / (I/A) =E/j

Where E=V/L is the electric field at any point inside the wire ;

j=I/A is current density at any point in the wire.

ρ= E/j ; E=jρ; j=E/ρ

(5) The reciprocal of resistivity is called conductivity ( σ ) : Unit of
conductivity is ohm-1meter-1(Ω-1m-1) and σ is defined as σ=1/ρ
j = E / ρ, j= σ E

(6) Drift Velocity (Vd) : It is defined as the average velocity with which the
free electrons in a conductor get drifted towards the positive end of the
conductor under the influence of an electric field applied across the
conductor

• Let V be the potential difference applied across the ends of the

conductor of length (l) , the magnitude of electric field is E = V/l.
• The direction of electric field is from positive to negative end of the
conductor . Since , the charge on an electron is –e and each free
electron in the conductor experiences a force (F) , F = -eE

• The free electrons keep on suffering collisions with the positive ions
in the conductor so frequently that the net flow of electrons in any
particular direction is zero i.e average thermal velocity of free
electron in a conductor is zero. If ⃗𝑈⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗1 , ⃗𝑈⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗2 , ------- ⃗𝑈⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑛
are random thermal velocities of n electrons in a conductor , then
their average thermal velocity i .e

=0

• Acceleration of each electron is a = -eE /m ( F = ma)

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 • At any instant of time , the velocity acquired by electron having
thermal velocity (u1) is v1 = u1 + at1 , where t1 is the time elapsed
• Similarly , v2 = u2 + at2 , ………… , vn = un + atn
• Average Velocity vd = (v1 + v2 + ……………..+ vn) /n
• vd = ((u1 + at1) + (u2 + at2) + ………. + (un + atn))/n

vd = + a

=0

= τ , average time between two

successive collisions called relaxation time.
• Distance travelled by the free electron during relaxation time is

called Mean free path

Vd= 0 + a 𝝉 , Vd= a 𝝉 , Vd= - (e E/m) 𝝉

• Negative sign shows that drift velocity (Vd) is opposite to the

direction of Electric field (E )
• QUESTION :
(a) Derive expression for drift velocity of electrons in a
good conductor in terms of relaxation time of
electrons. (CBSE 2002)
(b) Explain how the average velocity of free electrons
in a metal at constant temperature, in an electric
field remains constant even though the electrons
are being constantly accelerated by this electric
field. (CBSE sample paper)

(7) Relation between Drift velocity (Vd) and Electric current (I) :

• Consider a conducting wire of length L and having uniform cross-section

area A in which electric field is present. Volume of conductor V = AL If E
is electric field applied across the conductor

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 If the conductor contains free electrons (n) per unit volume , then
Number of free electron = nAL ……….. (1)
Let e be the charge of an electron, then total charge on all free electrons in
the conductor is q = nALe ………….. (2)
Time taken by the free electrons to cross the length of the conductor
t = L/Vd …………………… (3)
Since, current (I) is the rate of flow of the charge , I = q /t ……..(4)
Substitute 2 and 3 in 4, I = n A Le / L/Vd, I = n e A Vd
This is the relation between the electric current and drift
velocity
Drift velocity Vd=(e E/m) 𝝉 ; I = n e A (e E/m) 𝝉 , I = n e2A E 𝝉 /m

(8) Current density (j) is given as j = I / A = n e Vd , j = (ne 2 𝝉E ) /m

(9)Conductivity of a conductor is due to motion of charge carriers in it:

σ = j /E = (ne 2 E ) /m E , σ = (ne 2 )/m ; The above relation can also
be written in vector form as both J and E are vector quantities where vector
being directed towards 𝐸⃗⃗ , = 𝝈𝑬
(10). Resistivity : ρ = 1 / σ = E / j = m / (ne 2 ) ;
Electric resistivity can also be defined as the ratio of electric field intensity at
any point in the conductor and the current density at that point.

Perfect conductor have zero resistivity and for perfect insulators resistivity
would be infinite .
Metals and alloys have lowest resistivity in the range of 10–8 Ωm to 10–6 Ωm

Greater the resistivity of the material , greater would be the field needed to establish
a given current density.
Insulators like ceramic, rubber and plastics having resistivity 1018 times greater
than metals or more.
In between the two are the semiconductors. These, however, have resistivity
characteristically decreasing with a rise in temperature.
The resistivity of semiconductors are also affected by presence of small amount
of impurities.

(11) Resistance : R = ρ L /A , R= m L / (ne 2 )A

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(12) Mobility (μ) : It is defined as the magnitude of drift velocity (Vd) per
unit electric field (E) , μ = Vd /E = e E τ /m E = e τ /m
SI unit μ = m2 s-1V-1
(13) Ohm's Law can be deducted using drift velocity relation :
Vd=(e E/m) but E=V/L Therefore
Vd=(eV/mL)
Also I = n e A Vd
Substituting the value of Vd in I relation ,
I=ne2A /mL or
V/I= R = (mL/ne2A ) a constant for a given conductor
Thus, V=IR

Questions:
(a) Graph between Resistance of a metal wire and Diameter
(CBSE 1999)

(b) Show that resistance of conductor is given by R = m L / (ne 2 A)

(CBSE 2002)
(c) How does drift velocity of electrons in a metallic conductor vary
with rise of temperature? (CBSE 2002)
(Ans: Heating of conductor , the collision of electrons occur more
frequently . So relaxation time decreases and hence drift velocity
decreases)
(14) Current Voltage relations

• We know that current through any electrical device such as resistors

depends on potential difference between the terminals
• Devices obeying ohm's law is called Ohmic conductor and follow a
linear relationship between current following and potential applied where
current is directly proportional to voltage applied i.e for ohmic
conductors I – V characteristic curve is linear and have finite slope

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(15) Limitations Of Ohm’s Law

There are many electrical devices that does not obey the ohm's law
Such devices are called non- ohmic devices for examples vacuum
tubes, semiconductor diodes ,transistors etc I – V characteristic
curve of non – ohmic conductors non – linear.
1. Consider the case of a semi conductor junction diode which are
used to convert alternating current to direct current and are used to
perform variety of logic functions is a non-ohmic device
Graphical voltage relation for a diode is shown below in the figure

Figure clearly shows a non linear dependence of current on voltage

and diode clearly does not follow the ohm's law. When a device does not
follow obey ohm's law, it has non linear voltage -current relation and the
quantity V/I is no longer a constant however ratio is still known as
resistance which now varies with current. In such cases we define a
quantity dV/dI known as dynamic resistance which expresses the
relation between small change in current and resulting change in voltage

2. The relation between V and I is not unique i.e there is more than one
value of V for the same current I A material exhibiting such behaviour
is GaAs

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Thus for non-ohmic electrical devices resistance is not constant for different
values of V and I

(16) Effect of Temperature on Resistivity :

Te mperature coefficient of resistivity

(a) Metals : When we increase the temperature of the metallic conductor, its
constituent atoms vibrate with greater amplitudes then usual. This
results to the more frequent collision between ions and electrons. As a
result average time between the two successive collision decreases
resulting the decrease in drift velocity.
For a metallic conductor ρ = E / j = m / (ne 2 𝝉 ) ;
ρ α 1/𝜏 .Thus increase collision with the increase in temperature results

in increase resistivity. For small temperature variations ,resistivity of the

most of the metals varies
according to the following relations ρ(T)=ρ(0)[1 + α(T-T0)] α is positive , ρ
increases with increase with temperature (copper)

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(b) Semiconductors : temperature coefficient of resistivity is negative ρ
decreases with increase with temperature

( C) Alloys : resistivity is very large but has weak dependence on

temperature e.x Nichrome

Note :

(a) Resist ivies of the non-metals decreases with increase in temperature

This is because at high temperature more electrons becomes available
for conduction as they set themselves loose from atoms and hence
temperature coefficient of resistivity is negative for non-metals
(b) Superconductivity : Superconductivity is a phenomenon of exactly
zero electrical resistance and expulsion of magnetic fields occurring
in certain materials when cooled below a characteristic critical
temperature.

Questions :

Q Show Variation of Conductivity with temperature for a metallic

conductor – Conductivity decreases with increase of its temperature (CBSE
2003)

(17) Electrical energy and Power :

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 1. Electric Energy : It is defined as the total work done (W) by the
source of emf(V) in maintaining the electric current electric current in
the circuit for a given time
E = VIt = I2Rt = V2 / R . t
If V = volt , I = ampere, t = seconds then E = joule

2. Electric Power : The rate at which work is done by the source of e.m.f in
maintaining the electric current in a circuit is called electric power.
P = VI , P = I I R = = I2R, P = I2R2 / R = V2 / R,
3. Commercial Unit of Electrical Energy – KW h
( also known as Board of Trade Unit ) 1 Kwh = 36 x 105 Joules

(17) Combination of Resistors Resistors

in Series :

Rs
=R1+R2+R3+...........................+Rn

Resistors in parallel:

1 / Rp = 1/ R1 + 1/ R2 + 1/R3 + ……………….. + 1 /Rn

Note : In series R s = n R ; In parallel R p = R/n ; R s / R p = n2