ELECTRICITY

GR11

ELECTRICAL SYMBOLS

A Ammeter v Voltmeter Lamp or Resistor

Rheostat (variable resistor) Cell or Switch

(Open vs. closed)

DEFINITIONS

CURRENT
Rate of flow of charge between two points in a circuit.

POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
The work done per unit positive charge, or energy transferred between two points in a circuit per unit
positive charge.

EMF
The maximum energy provided by the battery per unit charge passing through it.

RESISTANCE
A material's opposition to the flow of electric current, and it is the ratio of potential difference across
the ends of a conductor and current strength.

OHM’S LAW
The potential difference across a conductor is directly proportional to the current through the
conductor, at constant temperature.

POWER
Rate at which work is done.

KILOWATT HOUR
The kilowatt hour (kWh) is a unit of energy and 1 kWh is the amount of energy used when 1
kilowatt of electricity is used for 1 hour.

INTERNAL RESISTANCE
Opposition to the flow of current inside a real battery.

THEORY

CHARGE

The unit of charge is the Coulomb and is the quantity of charge on 6,25 x 1018 electrons. A
coulomb is the quantity of charge that passes through a conductor when a current of one ampere
flows for one second.

Electrical charges may be positive or negative. A positive charge is caused by a deficiency of

electrons while a negative charge is caused by an excess of electrons.

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ENERGY SOURCES

Electrical energy is provided by sources such as a cell, battery or dynamo. A battery is a

combination of cells. Cells can be connected in series or parallel. EMF is the maximum energy
provided by a battery per unit charge passing through it. It is the work done per unit charge as it
moves around a circuit – including through the cells. Another way to describe it is to say: The emf
of a cell is the quantity of electrical energy that can be supplied per coulomb of charge when no
current is flowing through the cell. The symbol for emf is E.

Series:

Cells are connected in series when their terminals are connected in a positive to negative
sequence:

+ -

The total emf of a battery of cells connected in series is equal to the algebraic sum of the emfs of
the individual cells.

ET = E1 + E2 + E3 + ……………. .

The advantage of connecting cells in series is that the total emf is increased thus producing a
stronger current.

Parallel:

Cells are connected in parallel when their positive and negative terminals are connected together
separately:

The total emf of a battery of cells connected in parallel is equal to the emf of a single cell, provided
that all the cells have the same emf.

The advantages of connecting cells in parallel are that the cells last longer and the resistance of
the battery in the circuit is decreased thus reducing the internal energy lost.

ET = E1 = E2 = E3 = ………. .

Examples:

Each of the cells has an emf of 2 V. Calculate the emf of the following batteries:

8V 4V

2V

6V

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SIMPLE CIRCUIT

A simple circuit consists of a cell,

conducting wires, resistor(s) and
switch.

POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE

The potential difference between two points in a circuit is the energy required to move one
coulomb of charge between the points.

W
V=
Q where V = potential difference (V), W = work done (J) and Q = charge (C).

Example 1:

Calculate the potential difference between two points if 20 J of work are required to move a charge
of 2 C.

Example 2:

Calculate the work done in moving a charge of 5 C through a potential difference of 2 V.

W = QV = 5 x 2 = 10 J

CURRENT

An electric current is the flow of charge (positive or negative) from one point to another in an
electrical circuit.

Conventional current is the flow of positive charge and its direction is from the positive terminal to
the negative terminal of a cell.
Since a current in a metal is conducted by negative electrons, the electron current flows from
negative to positive. However, current direction in metals is always based on the direction that a
positive charge would take and is therefore the direction of a conventional current, i.e. from positive
to negative.

Current strength is the rate at which charge passes a given point in a conductor. The unit of
current strength is the ampere (A). (The use of the abbreviation “amp” is incorrect.)

Q
I=
t where I is the current strength (A), Q = charge (C) and t = time (s).

Example 1:

Calculate the current strength when 5 C of charge passes a given point in 2 s.

Q 5
I= = =2 , 5 A
t 2
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Example 2:

Calculate the quantity of charge passing a point in a circuit when a current of 5 A flows for 10 s.

Q = It = 5 x 10 = 50 C

The formula Q = It can be used to define a Coulomb.

A coulomb is the quantity of charge that passes through a conductor when a current of one
ampere flows for one second.
CONDUCTION IN A METAL

In a metal, the atoms are packed closely in a

crystal lattice. The outermost electrons of the
metal atoms are held loosely and can escape
the attractive forces of their nuclei to form
positively charged metal ions. These electrons
are called free electrons and move around at
random.

If a potential difference is applied across the

ends of the conductor, an electric field is set up
in the conductor. Negatively charged electrons
are attracted to the positive terminal while the
metal ions remain stationary because they are held in a crystal lattice. The movement of electrons
is impeded by collisions with the positive metallic ions causing resistance. Every electron that
leaves a conductor at the positive terminal is replaced by another from the negative terminal. The
overall charge of a conductor is therefore neutral.

RESISTANCE

The resistance of a conductor is a measure of how much difficulty charges experience in passing
through the conductor. A good conductor has a low resistance and a poor conductor has a high
resistance. Resistance is caused by collisions between electrons and metal atoms that interfere
with the flow of charge.

The following factors affect the resistance of a conductor:

1. type of metal used. 3. length of the conductor.

2. thickness (or cross-sectional area). 4. temperature.

Resistance is defined as the ratio of potential difference across the ends of a conductor and
current strength.

V
R=
I where R = resistance (), V = potential difference (V) and I = current strength (A).
An ohm is the resistance of a conductor when a potential difference of one volt causes a current of
one ampere to flow through it.

Example: Calculate the resistance of a conductor when a current of 2 A flows when the potential
across its ends is 10 V.
V 10
R= = =5 Ω
I 2

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 OHM’S LAW

Ohm’s Law states: The potential difference across a conductor is directly proportional to the
current in the conductor at constant temperature.
Mathematical formula:
V = IR

In words:
For a given resistor, V  I at constant temperature.
Experiment to verify Ohm’s Law

Set up the apparatus as show in the accompanying

diagram.
Vary the potential difference across the resistor by moving
the rheostat and take five readings of potential difference
and current.
Precaution: Keep the temperature of the resistor constant.
Tabulate your results as follows:

Potential V
Current (A)
difference (V) I ()
1 1,0 0,5 2
2 2,0 1,0 2
3 3,0 1,5 2
4 4,0 2,0 2
5 5,0 2,5 2

Plot a graph of V against I.

5 
V = RI + 0
Potential difference

4  y = mx + C

3  The gradient of the graph is equal to R.

The y-intercept is at 0.
2 
1 
(V)

0
0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2,0 2,5 Current (A)

Resistors connected in series

Resistors connected in series act as potential dividers.

V = v1 + v2 + v3  IR =
Ir1 + Ir2 + Ir3  R = r1 +
r2 + r3 (Divide by the common factor I.)

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The total resistance of a combination of resistors connected in series is equal to the algebraic sum
of the component resistors.

R = r1 + r2 + r3 + ……. .

Example:

2 3 9

R = r1 + r2 + r3 = 2 + 3 + 9 = 14 

Since resistors connected in series act as potential dividers, the resistance across any one resistor
can be calculated using the formula:
r
v= V
R .

In the accompanying diagrams, a cell with an emf of 10 V and negligible internal resistance is
connected in parallel with a 2  resistor and a rheostat. The resistance of the rheostat is adjusted
to illustrate how the potential difference across resistors can be varied.

The
resistance of the rheostat is increased from 3  in Diagram 1 to 8  in Diagram 2 causing a
different division in potential difference across the resistors.

V 10 V 10
I = = =2 A I = = =1 A
R = r 1 + r2 R 5 R = r 1 + r2 R 10
=2+3=5  = 2 + 8 = 10 

V1 = IR = 2 x 2 = 4 V V2 = IR = 2 x 3 = 6 V V 1 = IR = 1 x 2 = 2 V V2 = IR = 1 x 8 = 8 V

OR
r 2 r 3 r 2 r 8
v= V = ×10=4 V v= V = ×10=6 V v= V = ×10=2 V v= V = ×10=8 V
R 5 R 5 R 10 R 10

The above calculations show how the division of potential difference increases across the rheostat
as the resistance is increased

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Resistors connected in parallel

Resistors connected in parallel act as current dividers.

V V V V 1 1 1 1
= + + = + +
I = i1 + i2 + i3  R r 1 r 2 r 3  R r 1 r 2 r 3 (Divide by the common factor, V.)

The reciprocal of the total resistance is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the resistances of the
component resistors.

Example:

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1+2+6 9
= + + = + + = = ∴ R = 0,67 Ω
R r1 r2 r3 6 3 1 6 6

Consider the following combination of resistors connected in parallel that act as current dividers.

The current flowing through resistors connected in parallel will be inversely proportional to their
resistances, i.e. the greater the resistance the smaller the current.

The ratio of the resistances is 2 : 1 (total 3). Two-thirds of the current will therefore flow down one
resistor and the remaining one-third down the other resistor. The larger current will flow down the
resistor having the smaller resistance.

2
×3=2 A
1  resistor: 3
1
×3=1 A
2  resistor: 3

METERS

An ammeter measures the strength of an electric current. It has a low resistance and is connected
in series in a circuit.

A voltmeter measures the potential difference between two points in a circuit. It has a high
resistance and is connected in parallel across the two points.

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POWER

Power is the rate at which work is done.

W
P=
t where P = power in watts (W), W = work in joules (J) and t = time (s).

Example 1:

Calculate the power when 100 J of electrical energy is used in 2 seconds.

W 100
P= = =50 W
t 2

Example 2:

Calculate the electrical energy used when a 100 W electric bulb burns for 2 minutes.
W = Pt = 100 x 2 x 60 = 12 000 J

Other formulae for power and work:

W = QV = VIt (Substituting the formulae W = QV and Q = It)

W VIt
P= = =VI
t t

R¿
V
2
I=V¿ ¿
P=VI =V ×
V
R
=
R (Substituting ¿)
P = VI = IR x I = I2R (Substituting V = IR)

W = Pt = I2Rt

V
2

t
W = Pt = R

“LOST” VOLTS EFFECT

The emf of a cell is the maximum energy provided by a battery per unit charge passing through it.
That is measure across the terminals of a cell when no current flows.

Since a cell has resistance, energy is used to overcome the internal resistance when a current
flows.

DEFINITION:
INTERNAL RESISTANCE = The opposition to the flow of current inside a real battery.

This results in a decrease in potential difference across the terminals because less energy per
coulomb is available to drive a current around the external circuit. The decrease in potential
difference is called the lost volts effect.

Emf = potential difference + energy used per coulomb to overcome internal resistance.

E = V + Ir where E is the emf (V), V the potential difference (V), I the current (A) and r the internal
resistance ().
OR
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V = E – Ir

COST OF ELECTRICITY

Electricity is charged according to the Domestic Tariff which is set by the local governments.
There are a number of different pricing levels in most cities but one domestic tariff in South Africa
is given as: 186.81 c/kWh. Energy is charged by the number of kilowatt hours (kWh) used.

DEFINITION: The kilowatt hour (kWh) is a unit of energy and 1 kWh is the amount of
energy used when 1 kilowatt of electricity is used for 1 hour.

A kWh is a unit of energy since: Watts x hours = power x time = energy

Power = Energy / time (P=E/t)
.: 1 W = 1J/s so 1 W.s = 1 J
.: 1000 W.s = 1000 J
.: 1000 W.h = 1000 x 60 x 60 J
i.e 1 kWh = 3 600 000 J

Cost of electricity = Tariff (cost per kWh) x Energy (in kWh)

= Tariff (per kWh) x Power (in kW) x Time (in hours used)
Example:

If a 900 W appliance is used for two hours the cost under the tariff above the cost would be:
Cost = kW x Tariff (c/kWh) x hrs
= 0.900 x 186.81 x 2
= R 3,36 (100c in R1)

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Worked Example 1:

In the accompanying circuit diagram, each cell has an

emf of 2 V and internal resistance of 0,5 .

1. Calculate the readings on A, V1 and V2 when the

switch is open.

2. Calculate the following when switch S is

closed:

2.1 the total resistance of the circuit.

2.2 the reading on A

2.3 the reading on V2

2.4 the charge passing through A in 2 minutes.

2.5 the power used by the 0,5  resistor.

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Solution:

1. V1 = 5 x 2 = 10 V V2 = 0 V and A = 0 A

2.1 Resistance of cells in series: R = r1 + r2 + r3 + r4 + r5 = 5 x 0,5 = 2,5 

1 1 1 1 1 1+2 3
= + = + = = ∴ R=2Ω
Resistance of resistors in parallel: R r1 r2 6 3 6 6

Total resistance of circuit: R = r1 + r2 + r3 = 2,5 + 2 + 0,5 = 5 

V 10
I= = =2 A
2.2 A: R 5

2.3 V2: V = IR = 2 x 2 = 4 V (The resistance between the points to which the voltmeter is
connected is equivalent to the resistance of the parallel
combination of resistors. The total current flowing through the
two resistors is 2 A.)

2.4 Q = It = 2 x 2 x 60 = 240 C

2.5 P = I2R = 22 x 0,5 = 2 W

Worked example 2:

In the circuit shown below, the switch S is open and the voltmeter V1 reads 9 V. When the switch is
closed the ammeter reads 600 mA. The internal resistance of the battery cannot be ignored.

The switch, S, is now closed.

a) Calculate the total resistance in the external circuit.

b) Calculate the internal resistance of the battery.

c) Calculate the reading on the voltmeter V1.

d) Explain why the reading on voltmeter V1 changes when the switch is closed.

e) The 4 Ω resistor is replaced with a 4 W light bulb. V2 now reads 2 V.

(i) Calculate the new reading on the ammeter

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 (ii) Explain why the reading on voltmeter V1 decreases when the 4  resistor is replaced
with the 4 W bulb.
Solution:

a) The equivalent resistance of two parallel resistors is found using:

1\RParallel = 1/6 + 1/6 = 2/6

RParallel = 6/2
=3Ω
The total resistance in the external circuit is therefore:
Rext = 3+4
= 7Ω (Since these resistors are connected in series)

b) Emf = 9V (switch is open – therefore the voltmeter V will read the emf of the battery)

A current of 600 mA is found in each branch of the parallel network, since both branches
have equal resistance (6Ω).
Remember to convert mA to A: 600 mA = 0,6 A.
The circuit current is therefore: I = 0,6 + 0,6 = 1,2 A

Emf = I (R + r)
9 = 1,2 (7 + r)
9 = 8,4 + (1,2) r
0,6 = 1,2 r
r = 0,5 Ω

c) V1 is the terminal potential difference and is found using the circuit current and the external
resistance: V1 = I. Rext = (1,2)(7) = 8,4 V

d) When the switch is closed, a potential difference now exists across the internal resistance of
the battery V internal resistance = I r = (1,2)(0,5) = 0,6 V.
This voltage is lost to the external circuit. Therefore the terminal potential difference (8,4 V) is
less than the emf of the battery (9 V).

e) The 4 Ω resistor is replaced with a 4 W light bulb. V2 now reads 2 V.

i) P = IV
4 = (2)( I)
I = 2A

The 2 A current will be divided equally amongst the two 6 Ω resistors, therefore the
ammeter will now read 1 A.

ii) The resistance of the 4 W bulb is: R = V2/P = 22/4 = 1 Ω

The resistance of the 4 W bulb is less than that of the 4 Ω resistor.

 R total ext DECREASES

 I INCREASES
 Vint INCREASES (from V = lr ; internal resistance r stays constant)
 Vext DECREASES (from Vext = Emf - Vint ; Emf remains constant)

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Exam style question – Answer the following:

The battery in the circuit diagram below has an emf of 12 V and an unknown internal resistance r.

Voltmeter V1 is connected across the battery and voltmeter V2 is connected across the switch S.
The resistance of the connecting wires and the ammeter is negligible.

1. Write down the respective readings on voltmeters V1 and V2 when switch S is open.

Switch S is now closed. The reading on voltmeter V1 changes to 9 V.

2. What will the new reading on V2 be?

3. Calculate the total external resistance of the circuit.

4. Calculate the internal resistance, r, of the battery.

5. How would the reading on voltmeter V1 be affected if the 6 Ω resistor is removed?

Explain your answer.

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For further practice, make sure to do all the worksheets on the
intranet and work through as many past papers on this section as
you can.

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