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GR11
ELECTRICAL SYMBOLS
DEFINITIONS
CURRENT
Rate of flow of charge between two points in a circuit.
POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
The work done per unit positive charge, or energy transferred between two points in a circuit per unit
positive charge.
EMF
The maximum energy provided by the battery per unit charge passing through it.
RESISTANCE
A material's opposition to the flow of electric current, and it is the ratio of potential difference across
the ends of a conductor and current strength.
OHM’S LAW
The potential difference across a conductor is directly proportional to the current through the
conductor, at constant temperature.
POWER
Rate at which work is done.
KILOWATT HOUR
The kilowatt hour (kWh) is a unit of energy and 1 kWh is the amount of energy used when 1
kilowatt of electricity is used for 1 hour.
INTERNAL RESISTANCE
Opposition to the flow of current inside a real battery.
THEORY
CHARGE
The unit of charge is the Coulomb and is the quantity of charge on 6,25 x 1018 electrons. A
coulomb is the quantity of charge that passes through a conductor when a current of one ampere
flows for one second.
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ENERGY SOURCES
Series:
Cells are connected in series when their terminals are connected in a positive to negative
sequence:
+ -
The total emf of a battery of cells connected in series is equal to the algebraic sum of the emfs of
the individual cells.
ET = E1 + E2 + E3 + ……………. .
The advantage of connecting cells in series is that the total emf is increased thus producing a
stronger current.
Parallel:
Cells are connected in parallel when their positive and negative terminals are connected together
separately:
The total emf of a battery of cells connected in parallel is equal to the emf of a single cell, provided
that all the cells have the same emf.
The advantages of connecting cells in parallel are that the cells last longer and the resistance of
the battery in the circuit is decreased thus reducing the internal energy lost.
ET = E1 = E2 = E3 = ………. .
Examples:
Each of the cells has an emf of 2 V. Calculate the emf of the following batteries:
8V 4V
2V
6V
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SIMPLE CIRCUIT
POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
The potential difference between two points in a circuit is the energy required to move one
coulomb of charge between the points.
W
V=
Q where V = potential difference (V), W = work done (J) and Q = charge (C).
Example 1:
Calculate the potential difference between two points if 20 J of work are required to move a charge
of 2 C.
Example 2:
W = QV = 5 x 2 = 10 J
CURRENT
An electric current is the flow of charge (positive or negative) from one point to another in an
electrical circuit.
Conventional current is the flow of positive charge and its direction is from the positive terminal to
the negative terminal of a cell.
Since a current in a metal is conducted by negative electrons, the electron current flows from
negative to positive. However, current direction in metals is always based on the direction that a
positive charge would take and is therefore the direction of a conventional current, i.e. from positive
to negative.
Current strength is the rate at which charge passes a given point in a conductor. The unit of
current strength is the ampere (A). (The use of the abbreviation “amp” is incorrect.)
Q
I=
t where I is the current strength (A), Q = charge (C) and t = time (s).
Example 1:
Q 5
I= = =2 , 5 A
t 2
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Example 2:
Calculate the quantity of charge passing a point in a circuit when a current of 5 A flows for 10 s.
Q = It = 5 x 10 = 50 C
RESISTANCE
The resistance of a conductor is a measure of how much difficulty charges experience in passing
through the conductor. A good conductor has a low resistance and a poor conductor has a high
resistance. Resistance is caused by collisions between electrons and metal atoms that interfere
with the flow of charge.
Resistance is defined as the ratio of potential difference across the ends of a conductor and
current strength.
V
R=
I where R = resistance (), V = potential difference (V) and I = current strength (A).
An ohm is the resistance of a conductor when a potential difference of one volt causes a current of
one ampere to flow through it.
Example: Calculate the resistance of a conductor when a current of 2 A flows when the potential
across its ends is 10 V.
V 10
R= = =5 Ω
I 2
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OHM’S LAW
Ohm’s Law states: The potential difference across a conductor is directly proportional to the
current in the conductor at constant temperature.
Mathematical formula:
V = IR
In words:
For a given resistor, V I at constant temperature.
Experiment to verify Ohm’s Law
Potential V
Current (A)
difference (V) I ()
1 1,0 0,5 2
2 2,0 1,0 2
3 3,0 1,5 2
4 4,0 2,0 2
5 5,0 2,5 2
5
V = RI + 0
Potential difference
4 y = mx + C
0
0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2,0 2,5 Current (A)
V = v1 + v2 + v3 IR =
Ir1 + Ir2 + Ir3 R = r1 +
r2 + r3 (Divide by the common factor I.)
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The total resistance of a combination of resistors connected in series is equal to the algebraic sum
of the component resistors.
R = r1 + r2 + r3 + ……. .
Example:
2 3 9
R = r1 + r2 + r3 = 2 + 3 + 9 = 14
Since resistors connected in series act as potential dividers, the resistance across any one resistor
can be calculated using the formula:
r
v= V
R .
In the accompanying diagrams, a cell with an emf of 10 V and negligible internal resistance is
connected in parallel with a 2 resistor and a rheostat. The resistance of the rheostat is adjusted
to illustrate how the potential difference across resistors can be varied.
The
resistance of the rheostat is increased from 3 in Diagram 1 to 8 in Diagram 2 causing a
different division in potential difference across the resistors.
V 10 V 10
I = = =2 A I = = =1 A
R = r 1 + r2 R 5 R = r 1 + r2 R 10
=2+3=5 = 2 + 8 = 10
V1 = IR = 2 x 2 = 4 V V2 = IR = 2 x 3 = 6 V V 1 = IR = 1 x 2 = 2 V V2 = IR = 1 x 8 = 8 V
OR
r 2 r 3 r 2 r 8
v= V = ×10=4 V v= V = ×10=6 V v= V = ×10=2 V v= V = ×10=8 V
R 5 R 5 R 10 R 10
The above calculations show how the division of potential difference increases across the rheostat
as the resistance is increased
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Resistors connected in parallel
V V V V 1 1 1 1
= + + = + +
I = i1 + i2 + i3 R r 1 r 2 r 3 R r 1 r 2 r 3 (Divide by the common factor, V.)
The reciprocal of the total resistance is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the resistances of the
component resistors.
Example:
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1+2+6 9
= + + = + + = = ∴ R = 0,67 Ω
R r1 r2 r3 6 3 1 6 6
Consider the following combination of resistors connected in parallel that act as current dividers.
The current flowing through resistors connected in parallel will be inversely proportional to their
resistances, i.e. the greater the resistance the smaller the current.
The ratio of the resistances is 2 : 1 (total 3). Two-thirds of the current will therefore flow down one
resistor and the remaining one-third down the other resistor. The larger current will flow down the
resistor having the smaller resistance.
2
×3=2 A
1 resistor: 3
1
×3=1 A
2 resistor: 3
METERS
An ammeter measures the strength of an electric current. It has a low resistance and is connected
in series in a circuit.
A voltmeter measures the potential difference between two points in a circuit. It has a high
resistance and is connected in parallel across the two points.
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POWER
W
P=
t where P = power in watts (W), W = work in joules (J) and t = time (s).
Example 1:
W 100
P= = =50 W
t 2
Example 2:
Calculate the electrical energy used when a 100 W electric bulb burns for 2 minutes.
W = Pt = 100 x 2 x 60 = 12 000 J
W VIt
P= = =VI
t t
R¿
V
2
I=V¿ ¿
P=VI =V ×
V
R
=
R (Substituting ¿)
P = VI = IR x I = I2R (Substituting V = IR)
W = Pt = I2Rt
V
2
t
W = Pt = R
The emf of a cell is the maximum energy provided by a battery per unit charge passing through it.
That is measure across the terminals of a cell when no current flows.
Since a cell has resistance, energy is used to overcome the internal resistance when a current
flows.
DEFINITION:
INTERNAL RESISTANCE = The opposition to the flow of current inside a real battery.
This results in a decrease in potential difference across the terminals because less energy per
coulomb is available to drive a current around the external circuit. The decrease in potential
difference is called the lost volts effect.
Emf = potential difference + energy used per coulomb to overcome internal resistance.
E = V + Ir where E is the emf (V), V the potential difference (V), I the current (A) and r the internal
resistance ().
OR
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V = E – Ir
COST OF ELECTRICITY
Electricity is charged according to the Domestic Tariff which is set by the local governments.
There are a number of different pricing levels in most cities but one domestic tariff in South Africa
is given as: 186.81 c/kWh. Energy is charged by the number of kilowatt hours (kWh) used.
DEFINITION: The kilowatt hour (kWh) is a unit of energy and 1 kWh is the amount of
energy used when 1 kilowatt of electricity is used for 1 hour.
If a 900 W appliance is used for two hours the cost under the tariff above the cost would be:
Cost = kW x Tariff (c/kWh) x hrs
= 0.900 x 186.81 x 2
= R 3,36 (100c in R1)
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
Worked Example 1:
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Solution:
1. V1 = 5 x 2 = 10 V V2 = 0 V and A = 0 A
1 1 1 1 1 1+2 3
= + = + = = ∴ R=2Ω
Resistance of resistors in parallel: R r1 r2 6 3 6 6
V 10
I= = =2 A
2.2 A: R 5
2.3 V2: V = IR = 2 x 2 = 4 V (The resistance between the points to which the voltmeter is
connected is equivalent to the resistance of the parallel
combination of resistors. The total current flowing through the
two resistors is 2 A.)
2.4 Q = It = 2 x 2 x 60 = 240 C
Worked example 2:
In the circuit shown below, the switch S is open and the voltmeter V1 reads 9 V. When the switch is
closed the ammeter reads 600 mA. The internal resistance of the battery cannot be ignored.
d) Explain why the reading on voltmeter V1 changes when the switch is closed.
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(ii) Explain why the reading on voltmeter V1 decreases when the 4 resistor is replaced
with the 4 W bulb.
Solution:
b) Emf = 9V (switch is open – therefore the voltmeter V will read the emf of the battery)
A current of 600 mA is found in each branch of the parallel network, since both branches
have equal resistance (6Ω).
Remember to convert mA to A: 600 mA = 0,6 A.
The circuit current is therefore: I = 0,6 + 0,6 = 1,2 A
Emf = I (R + r)
9 = 1,2 (7 + r)
9 = 8,4 + (1,2) r
0,6 = 1,2 r
r = 0,5 Ω
c) V1 is the terminal potential difference and is found using the circuit current and the external
resistance: V1 = I. Rext = (1,2)(7) = 8,4 V
d) When the switch is closed, a potential difference now exists across the internal resistance of
the battery V internal resistance = I r = (1,2)(0,5) = 0,6 V.
This voltage is lost to the external circuit. Therefore the terminal potential difference (8,4 V) is
less than the emf of the battery (9 V).
i) P = IV
4 = (2)( I)
I = 2A
The 2 A current will be divided equally amongst the two 6 Ω resistors, therefore the
ammeter will now read 1 A.
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Exam style question – Answer the following:
The battery in the circuit diagram below has an emf of 12 V and an unknown internal resistance r.
Voltmeter V1 is connected across the battery and voltmeter V2 is connected across the switch S.
The resistance of the connecting wires and the ammeter is negligible.
1. Write down the respective readings on voltmeters V1 and V2 when switch S is open.
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For further practice, make sure to do all the worksheets on the
intranet and work through as many past papers on this section as
you can.
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