Math First Course

First Year: Mathematics Lecturer Azhar Malik
Lecture 1: Review of real numbers

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Review of Real Numbers System.
- Intervals.
- Inequalities.
- Absolute Value.
We distinguish three subsets of real numbers:
1- The natural numbers, namely: 1,2,3, ⋯

2- The integers, namely: 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, ⋯
𝑚𝑚
3- The rational numbers: , 𝑛𝑛 ≠ 0
𝑛𝑛
• The real numbers can be represented geometrically as points on a

number line called the real line.
• A subset of the real line is called an interval if it contains at least
two numbers and contains all the real numbers lying between any
two of its elements.
Intervals:
• Intervals of numbers corresponding to line segments are finite

intervals.
• Intervals of numbers corresponding to rays and the real line are
infinite intervals.
Type of intervals Notation Set description Type
Finite (a,b) {𝑥𝑥|𝑎𝑎 < 𝑥𝑥 < 𝑏𝑏} open
[𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏] {𝑥𝑥|𝑎𝑎 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 𝑏𝑏} closed
[𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏) {𝑥𝑥|𝑎𝑎 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 < 𝑏𝑏} half-open
(a,b] {𝑥𝑥|𝑎𝑎 < 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 𝑏𝑏} half-open
Infinite (a,∞) {𝑥𝑥|𝑥𝑥 > 𝑎𝑎} open
[𝑎𝑎, ∞) {𝑥𝑥|𝑥𝑥 ≥ 𝑎𝑎} closed
(−∞, 𝑏𝑏) {𝑥𝑥|𝑥𝑥 < 𝑏𝑏} open
(−∞,b] {𝑥𝑥|𝑥𝑥 ≤ 𝑏𝑏} closed
(−∞,∞) R (set of all real numbers) Both open & closed
Inequalities:
Rules for inequalities:
If a, b, and c are real numbers then:
1
1. a < 𝑏𝑏 → 𝑎𝑎 ± 𝑐𝑐 < 𝑏𝑏 ± 𝑐𝑐 .
2. a < 𝑏𝑏 & 𝑐𝑐 > 0 → 𝑎𝑎 𝑐𝑐 < 𝑏𝑏 𝑐𝑐
𝑐𝑐 < 0 → 𝑎𝑎 𝑐𝑐 > 𝑏𝑏 𝑐𝑐
1
3. a > 0 → >0
𝑎𝑎
4. If a & b are both positive or negative
1 1
𝑎𝑎 < 𝑏𝑏 → >
𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏
Solving Inequalities:
Ex. Solve the following inequalities and show their solution sets on the
real line.
a) 2𝑥𝑥 − 1 < 𝑥𝑥 + 3 → 𝑥𝑥 < 4 (-∞, 4)

−𝑥𝑥 −3 −3
b) < 2𝑥𝑥 + 1 → < 𝑥𝑥 ( , ∞)
3 7 7
6 11
c) ≥5 ± 𝑥𝑥 ≤
𝑥𝑥 −1 5
Absolute Value:
The absolute value of a number 𝑥𝑥, denoted by |𝑥𝑥| & is defined by

the formula
𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 ≥ 0
|𝑥𝑥| = �
−𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 < 0
Geometrically, the absolute value of 𝒙𝒙 is the distance from 𝒙𝒙 to 0.
Since distance are always positive oy 0.
→ |𝑥𝑥| ≥ 0 for every real number and |𝑥𝑥| = 0 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑥𝑥 = 0.
|𝑥𝑥 − 𝑦𝑦| = 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑥𝑥 & 𝑦𝑦
Notes:
|𝑥𝑥| = �𝑥𝑥 2
2
Absolute value properties:
1. |−𝑎𝑎| = 𝑎𝑎
2. |𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎| = |𝑎𝑎||𝑏𝑏|
𝑎𝑎 |𝑎𝑎|
3. � � = |𝑏𝑏|
𝑏𝑏
4. |𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏| ≤ |𝑎𝑎| + |𝑏𝑏|
Absolute value and Intervals:
If a is any positive number, then:
5. |𝑥𝑥| = 𝑎𝑎 ↔ 𝑥𝑥 = ±𝑎𝑎
6. |𝑥𝑥| < 𝑎𝑎 ↔ −𝑎𝑎 < 𝑥𝑥 < 𝑎𝑎
7. |𝑥𝑥| > 𝑎𝑎 ↔ 𝑥𝑥 > 𝑎𝑎 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑥𝑥 < −𝑎𝑎
8. |𝑥𝑥| ≤ 𝑎𝑎 ↔ −𝑎𝑎 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 𝑎𝑎
9. |𝑥𝑥| ≥ 𝑎𝑎 ↔ 𝑥𝑥 ≥ 𝑎𝑎 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑥𝑥 ≤ −𝑎𝑎
Ex.1: Solving an equation with absolute vales:
a) |2𝑥𝑥 − 3| = 7 → 𝑥𝑥 = 5 & 𝑥𝑥 = −2
Ex.2: Solve the inequality & show the solution set on the real line.
2 1 1 1 1
a) �5 − � < 1 → < 𝑥𝑥 < ( , )
𝑥𝑥 3 2 3 2
b) |2𝑥𝑥 − 3| ≤ 1
c) |2𝑥𝑥 − 3| ≥ 1
3
Cartesian Coordinates and Geometry
- Cartesian plane.
- Increment and distance.
- Line equation.
- Circle equation.
Cartesian plane:
This coordinate system is called the rectangular coordinate system

or Cartesian coordinate system. The coordinate axes of Cartesian plane
divide the plane into four regions called quadrants.
p(x,y)
Increment and distance:
When a particle moves from one point to another in the plane, the
net changes in its coordinates are called increments.
Ex.: In going from the point A(4,-3) to the point B(2,5) the increments
in the x- and y-coordinates are:
run ∆𝑥𝑥 = 2 − 4 = −2
rise ∆𝑦𝑦 = 5 + 3 = 8
4
Note: coordinate increments may be positive, negative or zero.
Given any two points 𝑃𝑃1 (𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑦𝑦1 ) and 𝑃𝑃2 (𝑥𝑥2 , 𝑦𝑦2 ) always determine a uniqe
straight line 𝑃𝑃1 𝑃𝑃2 . The slope of the line 𝑃𝑃1 𝑃𝑃2 is:
𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 ∆𝑦𝑦 𝑦𝑦2 −𝑦𝑦1
𝑚𝑚 = = =
𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 ∆𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥2 −𝑥𝑥1
We can write an equation for a straight line L if we know its slope m

and point 𝑃𝑃1 (𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑦𝑦1 ). If 𝑃𝑃(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) is any other point on L then:
𝑦𝑦 − 𝑦𝑦1
𝑚𝑚 =
𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥1
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑦𝑦1 + 𝑚𝑚(𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥1 )
Ex.1: Write an equation for the line through the point (2,3) with slope
-3/2.
Sol.:
3 3
𝑦𝑦 = 3 − (𝑥𝑥 − 2) → 𝑦𝑦 = − 𝑥𝑥 + 6
2 2
If 𝑥𝑥 = 0 → 𝑦𝑦 = 6
Ex.2: Write an equation for the line through (-2,-1) & (3,4).
Sol.:
4+1
𝑚𝑚 = =1
3+2
We can use this slope with either of the two given points in the
point-slope equation:
With (-2,-1) → 𝑦𝑦 = −1 + 1(𝑥𝑥 + 2) → 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 + 1
5
The 𝑦𝑦 − 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 of the point where a nonvertical line intersect

the 𝑦𝑦 − 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 is called the 𝑦𝑦 − 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 of the line. Similarly, the 𝑥𝑥 −
𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 of a nonhorizontal line is the 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 of the point
where it crosses the 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎. A line with slope m and 𝑦𝑦 − 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 b
passes through the point (0,b), so it has equation:
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑏𝑏 + 𝑚𝑚(𝑥𝑥 − 0)
𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 𝑏𝑏 this equation is called slope-intercept equation.
Ex.: Find the slope and 𝑦𝑦 − 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖of the line 8𝑥𝑥 + 5𝑦𝑦 = 20
Sol: Solve the equation for y to put it in slope-intercept form:
8𝑥𝑥 + 5𝑦𝑦 = 20
5𝑦𝑦 = −8𝑥𝑥 + 20
−8
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 + 4
5
−8
The slope is 𝑚𝑚 = . The 𝑦𝑦 − 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 is b = 4
5
General linear equation:
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 𝐶𝐶 (𝐴𝐴&𝐵𝐵 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏ℎ = 0)
is called general linear equation in 𝑥𝑥 & 𝑦𝑦 because its graph always

represents a line and every line has an equation in this form (including
lines with undefined slope).
Distance and circles in the plane:
The distance between 𝑃𝑃1 (𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑦𝑦1 ) and 𝑃𝑃2 (𝑥𝑥2 , 𝑦𝑦2 ) is:
𝑑𝑑 = �(∆𝑥𝑥)2 + (∆𝑦𝑦)2 = �(𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑥𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦𝑦2 − 𝑦𝑦1 )2
Ex .:
a) The distance between (-1,2) & (3,4) is

𝑑𝑑 = �(4)2 + (2)2 = 2√5
6
b) The distance from the origin to 𝑃𝑃(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) is
𝑑𝑑 = �(𝑥𝑥 − 0)2 + (𝑦𝑦 − 0)2 = �(𝑥𝑥)2 + (𝑦𝑦)2
Circle:
A circle of radius a is the set of all points 𝑃𝑃(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) whose distance
from some center 𝐶𝐶(ℎ, 𝑘𝑘) equals a, 𝑃𝑃(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) lies on the circle :
�(𝑥𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦𝑦 − 𝑘𝑘)2 = 𝑎𝑎
→ (𝑥𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦𝑦 − 𝑘𝑘)2 = 𝑎𝑎2
If a = 1 and center is origin then
𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 = 1 standard equation of a circle
Ex.1:
a) The standard equation for the circle of radius 2 centered (3,4) is
(𝑥𝑥 − 3)2 + (𝑦𝑦 − 4)2 = 22
b) The circle (𝑥𝑥 − 1)2 + (𝑦𝑦 + 5)2 = 3

→ ℎ = 1 , 𝑘𝑘 = −5 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎 = √3
Ex.2: Find the center and radius of the circle
𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 + 4𝑥𝑥 − 6𝑦𝑦 − 3 = 0
Sol:
𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 + 4𝑥𝑥 − 6𝑦𝑦 − 3 = 0
(𝑥𝑥 2 + 4𝑥𝑥) + (𝑦𝑦 2 − 6𝑦𝑦) = 3
4 2 −6 2 4 −6
�𝑥𝑥 2 + 4𝑥𝑥 + � � � + �𝑦𝑦 2 − 6𝑦𝑦 + � � � = 3 + ( )2 + ( )2
2 2 2 2
(𝑥𝑥 2 + 4𝑥𝑥 + 4) + (𝑦𝑦 2 − 6𝑦𝑦 + 9) = 3 + 4 + 9
7
(𝑥𝑥 + 2)2 + (𝑦𝑦 − 3)2 = 16
The center is (-2,3) and the radius is a = 4
Functions and their graphs:
Definition: A function from a set D to a set y is a rule that assigns a

unique element 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) ∈ 𝑌𝑌 to each element 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝐷𝐷.
• The set D of all possible input values is called the domain of the
function.
• The set of all values of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) as 𝑥𝑥 varies throughout D is called the
range of the function. The range may not include every element in
the set Y.
Ex.: Verify the domains and ranges of these functions.
No. function Domain(x) Range (y)

1 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 2 (-∞, ∞) [0, ∞)
2 1 (-∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞) (-∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞)
𝑦𝑦 =
𝑥𝑥
3 𝑦𝑦 = √𝑥𝑥 [0, ∞) [0, ∞)
4 𝑦𝑦 = √4 − 𝑥𝑥 (-∞, 4] [0, ∞)
5 𝑦𝑦 = �1 − 𝑥𝑥 2 [−1,1] [0,1]
6 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 ≥ 0
|𝑥𝑥 | = �
7 −𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 < 0
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 ) = �𝑥𝑥 2
0 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 1
1 𝑥𝑥 > 1
8
Graph of functions:
Ex.: Sketching a graph:
a) Graph the function 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 2 over the interval [−2,2]
b) 𝑦𝑦 = |𝑥𝑥|
c) 𝑦𝑦 = � 𝑥𝑥 2 0 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 1
1 𝑥𝑥 > 1
Problems:
Q1: Solve the following inequalities and show the solution sets on the
real line.
a) 5𝑥𝑥 − 3 ≤ 7 − 3𝑥𝑥
1 7
b) 2𝑥𝑥 − ≥ 7𝑥𝑥 +
2 6
6−𝑥𝑥 3𝑥𝑥−4
c) <
4 2
4 1
d) (𝑥𝑥 − 2) < (𝑥𝑥 − 6)
5 3
9
Q2: Solve the following equations:
a) |𝑦𝑦| = 3
b) |1 − 𝑡𝑡| = 1
9
c) |8 − 3𝑠𝑠| =
2
Q3: Solve the following inequalities and show the solution sets as
intervals or unions intervals then show the solution sets on the real line.
a) |𝑡𝑡 + 2| < 1
3
b) � − 1� ≤ 2
2
1
c) |𝑠𝑠 + 3| ≥
2
3𝑟𝑟 2
d) � − 1� >
5 5
2
e) 𝑥𝑥 < 2
f) 4 < 𝑥𝑥 2 < 9
g) (𝑥𝑥 − 1)2 < 4
Q4: Find the slope (if any) of the points of the line they determine.
a) A(-1,2), B(-2,-1)
b) A(-2,1), B(2,-2)
c) A(2,3), B(-1,3)
d) A(-2,0), B(-2,-2)
Q5: Write an equation for each line described.
a) Passes through (-1,1) with slope -1.

b) Passes through (3,4) and (-2,5).
c) Passes through (-12,-9) and has slope 0.
d) Passes through (1/3,4) and has no slope.
Q6: Find an equation for the circle with the given center C(h,k) and
radius a.
a) C(0,2) , a= 2
b) C(-3,0) , a= 3
c) C(-1,5) , a= root(10)
10
‫‪First Year: Mathematics‬‬ ‫‪Lecturer Azhar Malik‬‬
‫‪Lecture 1: Review of real numbers‬‬
‫‪Q7: Graph the circle whose equations are given below.‬‬
‫‪a) 𝑥𝑥 2 +𝑦𝑦 2 − 8𝑥𝑥 + 4𝑦𝑦 + 16 = 0‬‬

‫‪9‬‬
‫‪b) 𝑥𝑥 2 +𝑦𝑦 2 − 4𝑥𝑥 − ( ) = 0‬‬
‫‪4‬‬
‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬
‫‪c) 𝑥𝑥 +𝑦𝑦 + 2𝑥𝑥 = 3‬‬
‫‪Q8: Find the domain and range of function.‬‬
‫‪a) 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 1 + 𝑥𝑥 2‬‬

‫𝑥𝑥√ ‪b) 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 1 −‬‬
‫‪1‬‬
‫= )𝑡𝑡(𝑓𝑓 )‪c‬‬
‫𝑡𝑡√‬
‫‪1‬‬
‫= )𝑡𝑡(𝑓𝑓 )‪d‬‬
‫𝑡𝑡√‪1+‬‬
‫‪e) 𝑔𝑔(𝑧𝑧) = √4 − 𝑧𝑧 2‬‬
‫|𝑥𝑥|� = )𝑥𝑥(𝑔𝑔 )‪f‬‬
‫𝑡𝑡‬
‫|𝑡𝑡| = )𝑡𝑡(𝑓𝑓 )‪g‬‬
‫‪11‬‬
Lecture 2: Transcendental Function
Transcendental Functions
Function can be classified into two groups: polynomial functions

are called algebraic, as are functions obtained from them by addition,
multiplication, division, or taking powers and roots. Functions that are
not algebraic are called transcendental. The trigonometric, exponential,
logarithmic, and hyperbolic functions are transcendental, as are their
inverses.
Natural logarithmic function:
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
i) Properties of Logarithms:
For any number 𝑎𝑎 > 0 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥 > 0 , the natural logarithm

satisfies the following rules:
1. ln 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 + 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙

𝑎𝑎
2. ln = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 − 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
𝑥𝑥
1
3. ln = −𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
𝑥𝑥
4. ln 𝑥𝑥 𝑟𝑟 = 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
5. ln 𝑒𝑒 = 1 and ln(1) = 0
6. ln(0) 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢
ii. Graph of logarithms function:
ln(0) 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢
ln(0.5) = −0.69
ln(1) = 0
ln(2) =0.69
ln(4) = ln(2)2 = 2𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙2 = 1.39
⋮
Domain (0, ∞) and the range (−∞, ∞)
1
The graph of the logarithm rises
above the 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 as x moves from
1 to right, and it falls below the axis as
X moves from 1 to left
iii. The Derivative of 𝒚𝒚 = 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 𝒙𝒙

𝑑𝑑 1
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑑 1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = 𝑢𝑢 > 0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑢𝑢 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
iv. Limit of 𝒚𝒚 = 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 𝒙𝒙
lim 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = ∞ 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 lim 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = −∞

𝑥𝑥→∞ 𝑥𝑥→0
Ex.: Find
𝑑𝑑 1
a) 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙2𝑥𝑥 = (2) = 1/𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑑 1 2𝑥𝑥
b) ln(𝑥𝑥 2 + 3) = 2𝑥𝑥 =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥 2 +3 𝑥𝑥 2 +3
Exponential Function:
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 e is the base of the natural logarithms and it’s a constant 𝑒𝑒 ≈

2.7 .
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥 a is any constant > 0.
i) Properties of exponential function:

1. 𝑒𝑒 0 = 1 , 𝑎𝑎0 = 1
2. 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥+𝑦𝑦 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 𝑒𝑒 𝑦𝑦 , 𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥+𝑦𝑦 = 𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥 𝑎𝑎 𝑦𝑦
1 1
3. 𝑒𝑒 −𝑥𝑥 = , 𝑎𝑎−𝑥𝑥 =
𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥
4. (𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 )𝑦𝑦 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 , (𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥 )𝑦𝑦 = 𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
5. 𝑒𝑒 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = 𝑥𝑥 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥 > 0 , 𝑒𝑒 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = 𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎 > 0
6. ln(𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 ) = 𝑥𝑥 (𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥)
2
ii) Graph of exponential function:
The graph of the functions 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 , 2𝑥𝑥 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 ln 𝑥𝑥 for all x
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥
y= 2𝑥𝑥
Y = lnx
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙−1 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥
Domain of 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 (0, ∞) and the range (−∞, ∞)
Domain of exponential is (−∞, ∞)and the range (0, ∞)
iii. The Derivative of 𝒚𝒚 = 𝒆𝒆𝒙𝒙 𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 𝒚𝒚 = 𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥

𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥 (𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑
Ex.: 3−𝑥𝑥 = 3−𝑥𝑥 (𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙3)(−1)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
iv. Limit of 𝒚𝒚 = 𝒆𝒆𝒙𝒙 𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 𝒚𝒚 = 𝒂𝒂𝒙𝒙
lim 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 = ∞ 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 lim 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 = 0

𝑥𝑥→∞ 𝑥𝑥→−∞
lim 𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥 = ∞ 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 lim 𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥 = 0 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎 > 1

lim 𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥 = 0 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 lim 𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥 = ∞ 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 0 < 𝑎𝑎 < 1

3
Trigonometric functions:
The six basic trigonometric functions:
x
cosθ = or x = r cos θ
r
y
sinθ = or y = r sin θ
r
y y
tan θ = or θ = tan −1
x x
1 r
sec θ = =
cos θ x
1 r
csc θ = =
sin θ y
x sin θ 1
cot θ = , tanθ = , cot θ =
y cos θ tan θ
𝜋𝜋
10 = 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
180
180
𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝜋𝜋
i. Properties of trigonometric functions:
sin( −θ ) = − sin θ 
csc(−θ ) = − cscθ 
 odd functions
tan(−θ ) = − tan θ 
cot(−θ ) = − cot θ 
cos(−θ ) = cosθ 
 even functions
sec(−θ ) = secθ 
4
sin 2 θ + cos 2 θ = 1
sec 2 θ − tan 2 θ = 1
csc 2 θ − cot 2 θ = 1
sin( x ± y ) = sin x cos y ± cos x sin y if x = y ⇒ sin(2 x) = 2 sin x cos x

cos( x  y) = cos xcos y ± sin x sin y if x = y ⇒ cos(2 x) = cos 2 x − sin 2 x
tan x  tan y 2 tanx
tan( x  y ) = if x = y ⇒ tan 2 x =
1 ± tan x tan y 1 − tan 2 x
Notes:
cos( x + y) = cos xcos y − sin x sin y

add
cos( x − y) = cos xcos y + sin x sin y
cos( x + y) + cos( x − y) = 2cos xcos y
1
cos xcos y = [cos( x + y) + cos( x − y)]
2
We can obtain sin x sin y by subtraction.
1 + cos 2 x
cos 2 x =
2
1 − cos 2 x
sin 2 x =
2
Periodic functions:
A function f (x) is called periodic if it is defined for all real x and

if there is some positive No. T such that
f ( x + T ) = f ( x)
The No. T is called a period of f (x) .
sin(2π + θ ) = sin θ cos(2π + θ ) = cosθ
5
Converting from polar to rectangular form and vice versa
We have the following relationship between rectangular Coordinates (Cartesian)

( x, y ) and polar Coordinates (r ,θ ) :
x2 + y2 = r 2
Ex.1: Converting an equation from Cartesian form to polar form
x2 + y2 − 4 y = 0
Since x 2 + y 2 = r 2 and y = r sin θ
⇒ x2 + y2 − 4y = 0
r 2 − 4r sin θ = 0
r (r − 4 sin θ ) = 0
r=0 or r = 4 sin θ
the graph of r = 0 is the pole. because the pole is included in the graph of r - 4sinθ = 0,
we can discared r = 0 and keep only r = 4 sinθ
Ex 2: Converting an equation from polar form to Cartesian form
r = −3 cosθ
r 2 = −3r cosθ Multiply both sides by r
⇒ x 2 + y 2 = −3x
⇒ x 2 + y 2 + 3x = 0
6
i. Graph of trigonometric functions:
iii. The Derivative of trigonometric functions:
iv. Limit of trigonometric functions:
lim 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 0 , lim 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 1 , lim 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 0

𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥→0
7
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑥𝑥
lim = lim = 1
𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥→0 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑥𝑥
lim = lim = 1
𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥→0 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
lim = 0
𝑥𝑥→±∞ 𝑥𝑥
(1 − 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐) 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 − 1
lim (1 − 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐) = 0 , lim = 0 , lim = 0
𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥
𝑥𝑥 2 𝑥𝑥 2
lim sin( ) = sin(lim ) , Note sin or cos or any trigonometric
𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎 𝜋𝜋+𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎 𝜋𝜋+𝑥𝑥
function is the same.
Examples:
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠3𝑥𝑥 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠3𝑥𝑥 3
1. lim → lim ∗ =1∗3=3
𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥 3
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
2. lim assume 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 − 𝜋𝜋 → 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑦𝑦 + 𝜋𝜋 𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 →
𝑥𝑥→𝜋𝜋 𝑥𝑥−𝜋𝜋
𝜋𝜋 → 𝑦𝑦 → 0
sin(𝑦𝑦 + 𝜋𝜋) sin 𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 + sin 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 −siny
lim = lim = lim = −1
𝑦𝑦→0 𝑦𝑦 𝑦𝑦→0 𝑦𝑦 𝑦𝑦→0 𝑦𝑦
𝑥𝑥 2 𝑥𝑥 2 𝜋𝜋
3. lim (sin ) = sin �lim � = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 1
𝑥𝑥→𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋+𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥→𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋+𝑥𝑥 2
𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 2 +1 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 2 +1
4. lim (cos ) = cos � lim � = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜋𝜋 = −1
𝑥𝑥→∞ 𝑥𝑥 2 +3 𝑥𝑥→∞ 𝑥𝑥 2 +3
8
Inverse trigonometric functions:
The six basic inverse trigonometric functions:
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠−1 𝑥𝑥 → 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 −1 𝑥𝑥 → 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡−1 𝑥𝑥 → 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 −1 𝑥𝑥 → 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
1 1 𝜋𝜋 1 𝜋𝜋
Ex.: if 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠−1 = 𝑥𝑥 → 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = → 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = → 𝑥𝑥 =
2 2 6 2 6
i. Properties of trigonometric functions:
9
‫‪Lecture 2: Transcendental Function‬‬
‫‪ii.‬‬ ‫‪Graph of inverse trigonometric functions:‬‬
‫‪iii.‬‬ ‫‪The Derivative of inverse trigonometric functions:‬‬
‫‪10‬‬
iv. Limit of inverse trigonometric functions:

𝜋𝜋
lim− 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠−1 𝑥𝑥 = lim 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 −1 𝑥𝑥 = 𝜋𝜋
𝑥𝑥→1 2 𝑥𝑥→−1+
𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
lim 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡−1 𝑥𝑥 = lim 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡−1 𝑥𝑥 = −
𝑥𝑥→∞ 2 𝑥𝑥→−∞ 2
𝜋𝜋 1 𝜋𝜋
lim 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 −1 𝑥𝑥 = lim 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 −1 𝑥𝑥 = lim 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 −1 =
𝑥𝑥→∞ 2 𝑥𝑥→−∞ 𝑥𝑥→−∞ 𝑥𝑥 2
1 1
lim 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 −1 𝑥𝑥 = lim 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠−1 =0 lim 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 −1 𝑥𝑥 = lim 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠−1 =0
𝑥𝑥→∞ 𝑥𝑥→∞ 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥→−∞ 𝑥𝑥→−∞ 𝑥𝑥
Examples:
2
1- Find 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 , 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 , 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 , 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 if 𝜃𝜃 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠−1
3
2
𝜃𝜃 = , the length of the remaining side is
3
3
then 2
√9 − 4 = √5
√5 2
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = , 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = , √5
3 √5
3 3 √5
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = , 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = , 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 =
√5 2 2
𝑥𝑥
2- Find sec(𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡−1 )
3
−1 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝜃𝜃 = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 → 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = ,,
3 3
the length of the remaining side is �𝑥𝑥 2 + 9
√𝑥𝑥 2 + 9
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 =
3
11
‫‪Problems:‬‬
‫𝑑𝑑‬
‫‪1) Find‬‬
‫𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑‬
‫‪a) 𝑦𝑦 = (𝑥𝑥 2 + 1)𝑥𝑥 .‬‬
‫‪b) 𝑦𝑦 = (𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 )𝑥𝑥 .‬‬
‫𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥‬
‫= 𝑦𝑦 )‪c‬‬ ‫‪.‬‬
‫𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙‪1+‬‬
‫‪d) 𝑦𝑦 = ln(ln(𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 )).‬‬
‫‪1‬‬
‫𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = 𝑦𝑦 )‪e‬‬
‫‪𝑥𝑥√𝑥𝑥+1‬‬
‫𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠‬
‫‪f) 𝑦𝑦 = 3‬‬
‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2 𝑥𝑥(𝑥𝑥+1)5‬‬
‫� = 𝑦𝑦 )‪g‬‬
‫‪𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐√𝑥𝑥+1‬‬
‫‪2) Find‬‬
‫‪a) 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 2‬‬ ‫𝑒𝑒√𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 )‪b‬‬ ‫‪c) 𝑒𝑒 3𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙2‬‬ ‫𝑥𝑥‪d) 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 = 2‬‬
‫‪3) Find‬‬
‫𝑥𝑥‪𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠7‬‬ ‫𝑥𝑥‪𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠3‬‬ ‫𝑥𝑥‪𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐4‬‬
‫‪a) lim‬‬ ‫‪b) lim‬‬ ‫‪c) lim‬‬ ‫)‪d‬‬
‫𝑥𝑥‪𝑥𝑥→0 3‬‬ ‫𝑥𝑥‪𝑥𝑥→0 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠5‬‬ ‫𝑥𝑥‪𝑥𝑥→0 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐2‬‬
‫‪𝑥𝑥 2‬‬ ‫‪𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 2 +1‬‬
‫𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ‪lim‬‬ ‫𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ‪e) lim‬‬
‫𝜋𝜋→𝑥𝑥‬ ‫𝑥𝑥‪𝜋𝜋+‬‬ ‫∞→𝑥𝑥‬ ‫‪𝑥𝑥 2 +3‬‬
‫𝑑𝑑‬
‫‪4.‬‬ ‫‪Find‬‬
‫‪1‬‬
‫‪a) 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2 𝑥𝑥 3‬‬ ‫) ‪b) 𝑦𝑦 = �sec(3𝑥𝑥 3‬‬ ‫) 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐( ‪c) 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡2‬‬
‫𝑥𝑥‬
‫𝑥𝑥‬
‫)‪d‬‬ ‫𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 𝑦𝑦‬
‫𝑑𝑑‬
‫‪5.‬‬ ‫‪Find‬‬
‫) ‪a) 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡−1 (𝑥𝑥 3‬‬ ‫)𝑥𝑥‪b) 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠−1 (3‬‬ ‫)𝑥𝑥( ‪c) 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 −1‬‬
‫)𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥( ‪e) 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 −1‬‬
‫‪12‬‬
‫‪13‬‬
‫‪14‬‬
Lecture 3: Hyperbolic Function
Hyperbolic Functions
The hyperbolic functions are formed by taking combinations of

two exponential functions 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑒𝑒 −𝑥𝑥 .
The six basic hyperbolic functions:
i. Properties of hyperbolic functions:
1
‫‪Lecture 3: Hyperbolic Function‬‬
‫‪ii.‬‬ ‫‪Graph of hyperbolic functions:‬‬
‫‪iii.‬‬ ‫‪The Derivative of hyperbolic functions:‬‬
‫‪2‬‬
iv. Limit of hyperbolic functions:
Examples:
1. Solve 3𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐ℎ𝑥𝑥 − 2𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠ℎ𝑥𝑥 = 10

3 2
(𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑒𝑒 −𝑥𝑥 ) − (𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑥𝑥 ) = 10 ∗ 2𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥
2 2
2𝑥𝑥 2𝑥𝑥
3𝑒𝑒 + 3 − 2𝑒𝑒 + 2 = 20𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥
20±√400−4∗5 20±2√95
𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 = = = 10 ± √95
2 2
Either 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 = 10 + √95 → 𝑥𝑥 = ln(10 + √95)
Or 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 = 10 − √95 → 𝑥𝑥 = ln(10 − √95)
2. Find the derivatives
𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡
𝑎𝑎) �𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡ℎ�1 + 𝑡𝑡 2 � = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠ℎ2 �1 + 𝑡𝑡 2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 √1 + 𝑡𝑡 2
𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 1 𝑥𝑥
b) 6𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠ℎ = 6 �𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐ℎ � � � = 2𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐ℎ
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 3 3 3 3
𝑑𝑑 −𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐ℎ𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃ℎ𝜃𝜃
c) 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐ℎ𝜃𝜃 (1 − 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 (𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐ℎ𝜃𝜃)) = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐ℎ𝜃𝜃 �− �+
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐ℎ𝜃𝜃
(1 − ln(𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐ℎ𝜃𝜃))(−𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐ℎ𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃ℎ𝜃𝜃) =
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐ℎ𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃ℎ𝜃𝜃 − (1 − ln(𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐ℎ𝜃𝜃))(𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐ℎ𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃ℎ𝜃𝜃) =
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐ℎ𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃ℎ𝜃𝜃 (ln(𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐ℎ𝜃𝜃)
3. Use the identity 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐ℎ2 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠ℎ2 𝑥𝑥 = 1 to find the values of the
−3
remaining five hyperbolic functions if 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠ℎ𝑥𝑥 =
4
−3 2 5
→ 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐ℎ𝑥𝑥 = �1 − 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠ℎ2 𝑥𝑥 = �1 − � � =
4 4
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠ℎ𝑥𝑥 −3 1 −5
→ 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑥𝑥 = = , 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐ℎ𝑥𝑥 = =
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐ℎ𝑥𝑥 5 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑥𝑥 3
3
1 4 1 −4
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠ℎ𝑥𝑥 = = , , 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐ℎ𝑥𝑥 = =
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐ℎ𝑥𝑥 5 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠ℎ𝑥𝑥 3
4. Rewrite the expressions in in the following exercises in terms of
exponentials and simplify the results as much as you can:
𝑒𝑒 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 +𝑒𝑒 −𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 1
a) 2 cosh(𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 ) = 2 � � = 𝑥𝑥 +
2 𝑥𝑥
𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 −𝑒𝑒 −𝑥𝑥 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 +𝑒𝑒 −𝑥𝑥 4
b) (𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠ℎ𝑥𝑥 + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐ℎ)4 = � + � = (𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 )4 = 𝑒𝑒 4𝑥𝑥
2 2
Inverse hyperbolic functions:
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠ℎ−1 𝑥𝑥 , 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠ℎ−1 𝑥𝑥
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐ℎ−1 𝑥𝑥 , 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐ℎ−1 𝑥𝑥
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡ℎ−1 𝑥𝑥 , 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐ℎ−1 𝑥𝑥
i. Properties of inverse hyperbolic functions:

𝟏𝟏
sech−1 𝑥𝑥 = cosh−1 � �
𝒙𝒙
𝟏𝟏
csch−1 𝑥𝑥 = sinh−1 � �
𝒙𝒙
𝟏𝟏
coth−1 𝑥𝑥 = tanh−1 � �
𝒙𝒙
When hyperbolic functions keys are not available on a calculator, it is still
possible to evaluate the inverse hyperbolic functions by expressing them as
logarothms, as shown here.
4
‫‪ii.‬‬ ‫‪Graph of inverse hyperbolic functions:‬‬
‫‪iii.‬‬ ‫‪The Derivative of inverse hyperbolic functions:‬‬
‫)𝑢𝑢 ‪𝑑𝑑 (𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠ℎ−1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑‬

‫=‬
‫𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑‬ ‫𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ‪√1 + 𝑢𝑢2‬‬
‫)𝑢𝑢 ‪𝑑𝑑 (𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐ℎ−1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑‬
‫=‬ ‫‪,‬‬ ‫‪𝑢𝑢 > 1‬‬
‫𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑‬ ‫𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ‪√𝑢𝑢2 − 1‬‬
‫)𝑢𝑢 ‪𝑑𝑑 (𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡ℎ−1‬‬ ‫𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ‪1‬‬
‫=‬ ‫‪, |𝑢𝑢| < 1‬‬
‫𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑‬ ‫𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ‪1 − 𝑢𝑢2‬‬
‫)𝑢𝑢 ‪𝑑𝑑 (𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐ℎ−1‬‬ ‫𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ‪1‬‬
‫=‬ ‫‪, |𝑢𝑢| > 1‬‬
‫𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑‬ ‫𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ‪1 − 𝑢𝑢2‬‬
‫)𝑢𝑢 ‪𝑑𝑑 (𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠ℎ−1‬‬ ‫‪−1‬‬ ‫𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑‬
‫=‬ ‫‪, 0 < 𝑢𝑢 < 1‬‬
‫𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑‬ ‫𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ‪𝑢𝑢√1 − 𝑢𝑢2‬‬
‫)𝑢𝑢 ‪𝑑𝑑 (𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐ℎ−1‬‬ ‫‪−1‬‬ ‫𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑‬
‫=‬ ‫‪, 𝑢𝑢 ≠ 0‬‬
‫𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑‬ ‫𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ‪|𝑢𝑢|√1 + 𝑢𝑢2‬‬
‫‪5‬‬
iv. Limit of inverse trigonometric functions:
lim 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠ℎ−1 𝑥𝑥 = ±∞ lim 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐ℎ−1 𝑥𝑥 = ∞

𝑥𝑥→±∞ 𝑥𝑥→∞
lim + 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡ℎ−1 𝑥𝑥 = −∞ lim− 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡ℎ−1 𝑥𝑥 = ∞

𝑥𝑥→−1 𝑥𝑥→1
lim 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐ℎ−1 𝑥𝑥 = −∞ lim 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐ℎ−1 𝑥𝑥 = ∞

𝑥𝑥→−1− 𝑥𝑥→1+
lim 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐ℎ−1 𝑥𝑥 = −1 lim 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐ℎ−1 𝑥𝑥 = 1

𝑥𝑥→−∞ 𝑥𝑥→∞+
Examples:
1. Find the derivatives:

1
a) 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠ℎ−1 √𝑥𝑥 → 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠ℎ−1 𝑥𝑥 2
1 −1/2
𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥 1 1
→ = 2 = =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 �1 + (𝑥𝑥 1/2 )2 2√𝑥𝑥 √1 + 𝑥𝑥 �𝑥𝑥(𝑥𝑥 + 1)
1 𝜃𝜃 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙1−𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙2 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙2
b) 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐ℎ−1 � � =− =
2 2𝜃𝜃 2𝜃𝜃
�1+�1� �1+�1�
2 2
c) 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 + √1 − 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠ℎ−1 𝑥𝑥
2. Evaluate the inverse hyperbolic functions by expressing them as

logarothms, a
5 1 9/4 1
a) 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐ℎ−1 � � = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 � � = ln 9 = ln 3
4 2 1/4 2
9
3 1+�1−( )
25
b) 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠ℎ−1 � � = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 � 3 � = ln 3
5 ( )
5
−1
c) 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐ℎ−1 � �
√3
6
‫‪7‬‬
‫‪8‬‬
Lecture 4: Applications of Derivatives
Applications of derivatives
L’ Hopital rule:
It is a rule for calculating limits of fractions whose numerators and

denominators both approach zero or +∞ .
Suppose that 𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎) = 𝑔𝑔(𝑎𝑎) = 0, or 𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎) = 𝑔𝑔(𝑎𝑎) = ∞ and

𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) ́
𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎)
𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎́ ) 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑔𝑔(𝑎𝑎́ ) 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒, such that 𝑔𝑔(𝑎𝑎́ ) ≠ 0. Then lim = lim ́ )
𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) 𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎 𝑔𝑔(𝑎𝑎)
Examples: Using L’Hopital rule

𝑥𝑥
√1+𝑥𝑥−1−2
1. lim
𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥 2
1 1 1 3
− −
(
� � 1 + 𝑥𝑥 ) 2 − 1/2 ( )
�− � 1 + 𝑥𝑥 2
lim 2 = lim 4 = −1/8
𝑥𝑥→0 2𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥→0 2
𝑥𝑥−𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
2. lim
𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥 3
1−𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 0
3. lim = lim = =0
𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥+𝑥𝑥 2 𝑥𝑥→0 1+2𝑥𝑥 1
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ∞ 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
4. lim → lim = lim 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 1
𝜋𝜋
𝑥𝑥→( )− 1+𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ∞ 𝜋𝜋
𝑥𝑥→( )− 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 2 𝑥𝑥 𝜋𝜋
𝑥𝑥→( )−
2 2 2
1 1 𝑥𝑥−𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 0
5. lim � − � ∞−∞ → lim � �
𝑥𝑥→0 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 0
𝑥𝑥 − 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
lim � �
𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
1 − 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 0
= lim � � 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝑥𝑥→0 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 + 𝑥𝑥 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 0
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 0
→ lim � �= =0
𝑥𝑥→0 2𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 − 𝑥𝑥 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 2
Chain rule
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
If 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑢𝑢) 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑢𝑢 = 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = ∙
Theorem: Parametric formula

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑦𝑦́ /𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
If 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑔𝑔(𝑡𝑡) 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
where ≠0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Examples:
1. 𝑥𝑥 = cos(𝑢𝑢) , 𝑢𝑢 = 𝑡𝑡 2 + 1
→ = ∙
= −𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ∙ 2𝑡𝑡
= −2𝑡𝑡 sin(𝑡𝑡 2 + 1)
𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦
2. 𝑦𝑦 = (𝑡𝑡 2 + 1)4 , 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑡𝑡 2 + 5 , find
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 4(𝑡𝑡 2 + 1)3 . 2𝑡𝑡
𝑦𝑦́ = = = = 4(𝑡𝑡 2 + 1)3
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2𝑡𝑡
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑦𝑦́
𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦 12(𝑡𝑡 2 + 1)2 . 2𝑡𝑡
𝑦𝑦́ ́= 2 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = = 12(𝑡𝑡 2 + 1)2
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2𝑡𝑡
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Equation of tangent
The derivative of a function at a point 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎 is the slope of the tangent line

to the curve.
Ex.1: Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 2 at (2,4)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 2𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑚𝑚 = = 2.2 = 4 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 (2,4)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑦𝑦1 + 𝑚𝑚(𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥1 )
𝑦𝑦 = 4 + 4(𝑥𝑥 − 2) = 4𝑥𝑥 − 4
Ex.2: a) Find the slope of the curve 𝑦𝑦 = 1/𝑥𝑥 at 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎 ≠ 0,
b) Where does the slope equal (-1/4)?

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 −1 −1
Sol.: a) = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎 𝑚𝑚 =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑎𝑎2
b) The curve has slope (-1/4) at the two points (2,1/2) and (-2,-1/2).

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First Year: Mathematics Lecturer Azhar Malik

Lecture 1: Review of real numbers

Review of Real Numbers System.

We distinguish three subsets of real numbers:

1- The natural numbers, namely: 1,2,3, ⋯

• The real numbers can be represented geometrically as points on a

• Intervals of numbers corresponding to line segments are finite

Rules for inequalities:

If a, b, and c are real numbers then:

a) 2𝑥𝑥 − 1 < 𝑥𝑥 + 3 → 𝑥𝑥 < 4 (-∞, 4)

The absolute value of a number 𝑥𝑥, denoted by |𝑥𝑥| & is defined by

|𝑥𝑥 − 𝑦𝑦| = 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑥𝑥 & 𝑦𝑦

Absolute value properties:

Absolute value and Intervals:

If a is any positive number, then:

Ex.1: Solving an equation with absolute vales:

Cartesian Coordinates and Geometry

This coordinate system is called the rectangular coordinate system

Increment and distance:

Note: coordinate increments may be positive, negative or zero.

We can write an equation for a straight line L if we know its slope m

𝑦𝑦 = 𝑦𝑦1 + 𝑚𝑚(𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥1 )

With (-2,-1) → 𝑦𝑦 = −1 + 1(𝑥𝑥 + 2) → 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 + 1

The 𝑦𝑦 − 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 of the point where a nonvertical line intersect

𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 𝑏𝑏 this equation is called slope-intercept equation.

Sol: Solve the equation for y to put it in slope-intercept form:

General linear equation:

𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 𝐶𝐶 (𝐴𝐴&𝐵𝐵 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏ℎ = 0)

is called general linear equation in 𝑥𝑥 & 𝑦𝑦 because its graph always

Distance and circles in the plane:

𝑑𝑑 = �(∆𝑥𝑥)2 + (∆𝑦𝑦)2 = �(𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑥𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦𝑦2 − 𝑦𝑦1 )2

a) The distance between (-1,2) & (3,4) is

b) The distance from the origin to 𝑃𝑃(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) is

𝑑𝑑 = �(𝑥𝑥 − 0)2 + (𝑦𝑦 − 0)2 = �(𝑥𝑥)2 + (𝑦𝑦)2

�(𝑥𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦𝑦 − 𝑘𝑘)2 = 𝑎𝑎

→ (𝑥𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦𝑦 − 𝑘𝑘)2 = 𝑎𝑎2

If a = 1 and center is origin then

𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 = 1 standard equation of a circle

a) The standard equation for the circle of radius 2 centered (3,4) is

(𝑥𝑥 − 3)2 + (𝑦𝑦 − 4)2 = 22

b) The circle (𝑥𝑥 − 1)2 + (𝑦𝑦 + 5)2 = 3

Ex.2: Find the center and radius of the circle

(𝑥𝑥 2 + 4𝑥𝑥) + (𝑦𝑦 2 − 6𝑦𝑦) = 3

(𝑥𝑥 2 + 4𝑥𝑥 + 4) + (𝑦𝑦 2 − 6𝑦𝑦 + 9) = 3 + 4 + 9

(𝑥𝑥 + 2)2 + (𝑦𝑦 − 3)2 = 16

The center is (-2,3) and the radius is a = 4

Functions and their graphs:

Definition: A function from a set D to a set y is a rule that assigns a

Ex.: Verify the domains and ranges of these functions.

No. function Domain(x) Range (y)

Ex.: Sketching a graph:

a) Graph the function 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 2 over the interval [−2,2]

Q2: Solve the following equations:

Q5: Write an equation for each line described.

a) Passes through (-1,1) with slope -1.

‫‪Q7: Graph the circle whose equations are given below.‬‬

‫‪a) 𝑥𝑥 2 +𝑦𝑦 2 − 8𝑥𝑥 + 4𝑦𝑦 + 16 = 0‬‬

‫‪Q8: Find the domain and range of function.‬‬

‫‪a) 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 1 + 𝑥𝑥 2‬‬

Function can be classified into two groups: polynomial functions

Natural logarithmic function:

For any number 𝑎𝑎 > 0 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥 > 0 , the natural logarithm

1. ln 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 + 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙