ECC 3011

ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS 1 (3+0)

6 : LIMIT AND CONTINUITY

6.1 Limit and continuity of real variable
function
6.2 Continuous and discontinuous functions
6.3 Numerical location of zeroes
 6.1 Limit and continuity of real variable function

6.1 LIMIT AND CONTINUITY OF REAL VARIABLE FUNCTION

 A function 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) is said to approach a limit 𝑙𝑙 as x approaches the
value 𝑎𝑎 if, given any small positive quantity 𝜀𝜀, it is possible to find a
positive number 𝛿𝛿 such that 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑙𝑙 < 𝜀𝜀 for all 𝑥𝑥 satisfying 0 <
𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎 < 𝛿𝛿
 Means : the value of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) can be made as close as to 𝑙𝑙 by taking 𝑥𝑥
sufficiently close to 𝑎𝑎.
 6.1 Limit and continuity of real variable function

EXAMPLE 6.1
Using calculator, examine the value of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) near 𝑥𝑥 = 0, where
𝑥𝑥
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = , 𝑥𝑥 ≠ 0
1− 1+𝑥𝑥

What is the values of lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)

𝑥𝑥→0
 6.1 Limit and continuity of real variable function

 The properties of convergence sequence enables to evaluate many limits

by reduction to standard cases.
 Common standards limit are:
𝑥𝑥 𝑟𝑟 −𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟
(i) lim = 𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟−1 , where 𝑟𝑟 is real number
𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥−𝑎𝑎
sin 𝑥𝑥
(ii) lim = 1 , where 𝑥𝑥 is in radians
𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥

(iii) lim 1 + 𝑥𝑥𝑥 1⁄ℎ = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥

ℎ→0

 These results can be deduced. Consider 𝑥𝑥 𝑟𝑟 − 𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟 , since 𝑥𝑥 → 𝑎𝑎, set 𝑥𝑥 =

𝑎𝑎 + ℎ. Then as 𝑥𝑥 → 𝑎𝑎, ℎ → 0, thus :
𝑟𝑟 ℎ 𝑟𝑟
𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟 = 𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟 1+ − 𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟 (𝑎𝑎 ≠ 0)
𝑎𝑎

ℎ 𝑟𝑟
 Expanding 1 + by binomial series, then:
𝑎𝑎
 6.1 Limit and continuity of real variable function

 Then,
𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟−1 𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟 − 1 2 𝑟𝑟−2 𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟 − 1 𝑟𝑟 − 2 3 𝑟𝑟−3
𝑥𝑥 𝑟𝑟 − 𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟 = ℎ𝑎𝑎 + ℎ 𝑎𝑎 + ℎ 𝑎𝑎 +⋯
1! 2! 3!

But 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎 = ℎ, so
𝑥𝑥 𝑟𝑟 − 𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟 − 1
= 𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟−1 + ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟−2 + ⋯
𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎 2!

Letting ℎ → 0, results back (i)

𝑥𝑥 𝑟𝑟 − 𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟
lim = 𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟−1
𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎
 6.1 Limit and continuity of real variable function

For results (ii), the series expansion:

𝑥𝑥 3 𝑥𝑥 5
sin 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 − + − ⋯
3! 5!
 Gives
sin 𝑥𝑥
lim =1
𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥

For results (iii), the series expansion:

1⁄ℎ 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 3
1 + 𝑥𝑥𝑥 =1+ 𝑥𝑥𝑥 +1+ −1 𝑥𝑥𝑥 + −1 𝑥𝑥𝑥 +⋯
1! ℎ 2! ℎ ℎ 3! ℎ ℎ

1⁄ℎ 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 2 1−ℎ 𝑥𝑥 3 1−ℎ (1−2ℎ)

1 + 𝑥𝑥𝑥 =1 + + + + ⋯
1! 2! 3!

As ℎ → 0, results back (iii)

1⁄ℎ
𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑥𝑥 3
1 + 𝑥𝑥𝑥 →1+ + + + ⋯ . = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥
1! 2! 3!
 6.1 Limit and continuity of real variable function

EXAMPLE 6.2
Evaluate the following limits
1 + 𝑥𝑥 2 − 1
lim
𝑥𝑥→0 𝑥𝑥 2
 6.1 Limit and continuity of real variable function

ONE-SIDED LIMIT
 In some applications, one-sided limits must be used,
 Eg :

 lim 𝑥𝑥 = 0 (as x tends to zero from ‘above’)

𝑥𝑥→0+

 lim 𝑥𝑥 = 0 (as x tends to zero from ‘below’) does not exist, since
𝑥𝑥→0−
no negative numbers are in the domain of 𝑥𝑥

 When lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑙𝑙 is written, means lim− 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = lim+ 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑙𝑙

𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥→𝑎𝑎
 6.2 Continuous and discontinuous functions

CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS
 Consider two functions of the graphs given
a) 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 2 − 1 b) 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 = tan−1 1⁄𝑥𝑥 , 𝑥𝑥 ≠ 0

 For 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥), the whole curve can be drawn without lifting the pencil, but it
is not possible for 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)
 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 is said to be continuous everywhere while 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) has a discontinuity
at 𝑥𝑥 = 0
 6.2 Continuous and discontinuous functions

 The most important of these is Heaviside’s unit function

0 (𝑥𝑥 < 0)
𝐻𝐻 𝑥𝑥 = � which has a discontinuity at 𝑥𝑥 = 0
1 (𝑥𝑥 ≥ 0)
 Continuity definition:
 Function 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) defined in the neighbourhood of a point 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥0 and at
the point itself is that
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) → 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥0 as 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥0
 A function with this property is said to be continuous at 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥0
 6.2 Continuous and discontinuous functions

SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS

 If 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) is continuous in the interval [𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏] then it has the following
properties :
Properties
A  𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) is a bounded function : there are numbers m and M such
that 𝑚𝑚 < 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) < 𝑀𝑀 for all 𝑥𝑥 𝜖𝜖 [𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏]
 Any numbers satisfying this relation are called a lower and upper
bound respectively
B  𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) is the largest and a least value on [𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏]
 The least value of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) on [𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏] is called the minimum of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) on
[𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏]
 The largest value of the maximum of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) on [𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏]
 The difference between the two is called the oscillation of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) on
[𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏]
 6.2 Continuous and discontinuous functions

 If 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) is continuous in the interval [𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏] then it has the following
properties :
Properties
C Intermediate value theorem
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) takes every value between its least and its largest value somewhere
between 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎 and 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑏𝑏
D Average value theorem
If 𝑎𝑎 ≤ 𝑥𝑥1 ≤ 𝑥𝑥2 ≤ 𝑥𝑥3 ≤ ⋯ ≤ 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 < 𝑏𝑏 there is an 𝑋𝑋𝜖𝜖 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 such that
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛
𝑓𝑓 𝑋𝑋 =
𝑛𝑛
E Given 𝜀𝜀 > 0, the interval [a,b] can be divided into a number of intervals in
each of which the oscillation of the function is less than 𝜀𝜀
F Given 𝜀𝜀 > 0, there is a subdivision of [a,b], 𝑎𝑎 = 𝑥𝑥0 < 𝑥𝑥1 < 𝑥𝑥2 < ⋯ <
𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 = 𝑏𝑏, such that in each subinterval 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 , 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖+1
𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑖+1 −𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑖
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑖 + 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 < 𝜀𝜀, 𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑖 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖
𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖+1 −𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖
 6.2 Continuous and discontinuous functions

Properties
G Weierstrass’theorem
Given 𝜀𝜀 > 0, 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) can be approximated on the interval [a,b] by a
polynomial of suitable degree such that
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛 (𝑥𝑥) < 𝜀𝜀 for 𝑥𝑥 ∈ [𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏]

 The properties of limits in convergence sequence enable to determine the

continuity of functions formed by combining continuous functions. Thu, if
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) and 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) are continuous functions:
 𝑎𝑎𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥), where a is a constant
 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) + 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)
 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)
 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)/𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥), except where 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) = 0
 6.2 Continuous and discontinuous functions

CONTINUOUS AND DISCONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS

 When locating a minimum or maximum value of a function 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥), in many
practical situations, the solution should yields a value close to that true optimum
value.
 The continuity idea to fill in ‘gaps’ in function. A simple example :
 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = (sin 𝑥𝑥)/𝑥𝑥 for 𝑥𝑥 ≠ 0. this function is defined everywhere except
at 𝑥𝑥 = 0
 Extend it to include 𝑥𝑥 = 0 by insisting that it be continuous at 𝑥𝑥 = 0. since
(sin 𝑥𝑥)/𝑥𝑥 → 1 as 𝑥𝑥 → 0, defining 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) as:

sin 𝑥𝑥 Yields a function with no gaps in its domain. The

(𝑥𝑥 ≠ 0)
 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = � 𝑥𝑥 function is known as sinc function
1 (𝑥𝑥 = 0)
sin 𝑥𝑥
(𝑥𝑥 ≠ 0)
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑥𝑥 = � 𝑥𝑥
1 (𝑥𝑥 = 0)
 6.2 Continuous and discontinuous functions

CONTINUOUS AND DISCONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS

 It is not always possible to fill in gaps in functions definition. The function
𝑥𝑥
 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 = (𝑥𝑥 ≠ 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛, 𝑛𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2, … ) can have its domain
sin 𝑥𝑥
extended to include the points 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑛𝑛𝜋𝜋, but it will always have a
discontinuity at those points. Thus,

𝑥𝑥
(𝑥𝑥 ≠ 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛, 𝑛𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2, … )
sin 𝑥𝑥
 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = � 1 (𝑥𝑥 = 0)
0 (𝑥𝑥 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛, 𝑛𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2, … )
 Yields a function that is defined everywhere but is discontinuous at
an infinite set of points
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