Limits Note: We are interested only values of 𝑥 “close to” 𝑎

Let 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) be a given function, we want to but not equal to 𝑎. Here 𝑓(𝑎) may not be defined at
concentrate on a particular value of 𝑥, say 𝑎, but 𝑥 ≠ 𝑥 = 𝑎, yet lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 exists.
𝑎. 𝑋→𝑎
Example: Given 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = −2𝑥2 + 8𝑥 − 4 Example 3. , 𝑥≠2
{ 0𝑥 −𝑥−2
2
Graph of 𝑓 (by completing the square)
Given: 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑥−2 , 𝑥=2 Find lim 𝑓(𝑥).
𝑦 = −2[𝑥2 − 4𝑥 + 4] − 4 + 8 𝑥→2
𝑦 = −2(𝑥 − 2)2 + 4

We are interested on values of 𝑥 “close” to 3, but lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim 𝑥2−𝑥−2 = 3 (Since we are interested
not equal to 3. The values of 𝑦 are becoming “close” 𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥−2 to closer 2 not equal to 2)
to 2.
X 2.9 2.99 3.01 3.1 Example 4.
Given: 𝑓(𝑥)= 𝑥 Find lim 𝑓(𝑥)
y 2.38 2.0398 1.9598 1.58 l𝑥l 𝑥→0

We say: As 𝑥 comes closer and closer to the value of

3, 𝑓(𝑥) gets closer and closer to value of 2. We say
𝑓(𝑥) approaches 2 as 𝑥 approaches 3 and we write:
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim(−2𝑥2 + 8𝑥 − 4)
𝑥→3 𝑥→3
=2
Definition. (intuitive) If a function 𝑓 is defined for
values x about the fixed number 𝑎, and if as 𝑥 tends
toward 𝑎, the values of 𝑓(𝑥) get closer and closer to
some specific number 𝐿, then we write
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝑳. (the limit of 𝑓(𝑥) is 𝐿
as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎)
𝒙→𝒂
lim = 𝑥 does not exist (the value from two sides
𝑥→0
l𝑥l
approaches to different value)
Definition. Given a function 𝑓 and numbers 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐿.
We say that 𝑓(𝑥) tends to 𝐿 as a limit 𝑥 tends to 𝑎, if
for each positive number ( > 0) there is a positive
number 𝛿 (𝛿 > 0) such that 𝑓(𝑥) is defined and |𝑓(𝑥)
− 𝐿| < whenever 0 < |𝑥 − 𝑎| < 𝛿.

Example 1. Given 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 1, 𝑎 = 2

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim(𝑥 + 1) = 3 Geometric Interpretation:
𝑥→2 𝑥→2
If for any ε > 0, a 𝛿 > 0 can be found such that the
graph of the function 𝑓 lies in the rectangle bounded
by lines
𝑥 = 𝑎 − 𝛿, 𝑥 = 𝑎 + 𝛿, 𝑦 = 𝐿 –ε and 𝑦 = 𝐿 − ε, then
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿.
𝑥→𝑎

Theorem on Limits
2
Example 2. 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 −𝑥−2 Theorem 1 (Uniqueness of Limit)
𝑥−2 Suppose that 𝑓(𝑥) → 𝐿1 as 𝑥 → 𝑎 and 𝑓(𝑥) → 𝐿2 as
Here 𝑓 (2) is undefined 𝑥→ 𝑎, then 𝐿1 = 𝐿2.
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim 𝑥2−𝑥−2 = 3 Theorem 2 (Limit of a Constant) If 𝑐 is a constant
𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥−2 and 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐 for all values of 𝑥, then for any number
Since 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥2−𝑥−2 = (𝑥−2)(𝑥+1) 𝑎 lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐.
𝑥−2 𝑥−2 𝑥→𝑎
𝑥 ≠ 2: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 1 Example. 1. lim 5 = 5 2. lim ( −3) = −3
𝑥→100 𝑥→−1

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim 𝑥2−𝑥−2 = lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim(𝑥 + 1) = 3 Theorem 3 (Obvious Limit)
𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥−2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2 If 𝑎 is a real number and 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 for all values of 𝑥,
then lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim 𝑥 = 𝑎.
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
Example. 1. lim 𝑥 = 100 2. lim 𝑥 = −1 Theorem 8 (The Sandwich Theorem) If 𝑓(𝑥), 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→100 𝑥→−1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ(𝑥) have the property that 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 𝑔(𝑥) ≤ ℎ(𝑥)
for 0 < |𝑥 − 𝑎| < 𝛿 . Suppose also that lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
Theorem 4 (Limit of Equal Function) and lim ℎ(𝑥) = 𝐿, then lim𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐿. 𝑥→𝑎
Suppose there is a number ℎ > 0 such that 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
𝑔(𝑥) for all values of 𝑥 for which 0 < |𝑥 − 𝑎| < 𝛿. Example.
Suppose that lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐿, then lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿. 1
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 Given 𝑔(𝑥) = |𝑥 sin( )|. Show that lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 0.
x
2 𝑥→0
Example. 1. lim 𝑥 −4
𝑥→2 𝑥-2
Proof: We know that
𝑥
Solution.
𝑓 𝑥-2 𝑥-2 Therefore, |𝑥|
𝑥
2
We let 𝑓(𝑥) = 0, 𝑔(𝑥) = |𝑥 sin (
lim 𝑥 −4= lim (𝑥 + 2) = 4 1
𝑥→2 𝑥−2 𝑥→2 )| 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ(𝑥) = |𝑥|
x
Theorem 5 (The Limit of a Sum)
If 𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔 are two functions with lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿1 and
𝑥→𝑎 lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim 0 = 0 and lim ℎ(𝑥) = lim|𝑥| = 0
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥→0
lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐿2, then lim(𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 1
Therefore, lim |𝑥 sin ( )| = 0.
x
= lim 𝑓(𝑥) + lim 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑥→0
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
Theorem 9 (Limit of Composite Function)
Example. 1. lim (𝑥 + 3) If 𝑓(𝑥)) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔(𝑥) are functions, 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 are
𝑥→−1 numbers, lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑏)and lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑏, then
Solution. lim (𝑥 + 3) = lim 𝑥 + lim 3 𝑥→𝑏 𝑥→𝑎
𝑥→−1 𝑥→−1 𝑥→−1 lim 𝑓[𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝑓(𝑏).
= −1 + 3 = 2 𝑥→𝑎
Note: theorem can be extended to any finite number Theorem 10 If n is a positive integer and 𝑎 > 0, then
of functions. .
Theorem 6 (The Limit of a Product) 𝑥→𝑎
If 𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔 are two functions with lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿1 and
𝑥→𝑎 Theorem 11 If n is a positive integer, 𝐿 > 0, then
lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐿2, then lim(𝑓(𝑥) ∙ 𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝐿1 ∙ 𝐿2. lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿, then .
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
x
x
Example. 1. lim 𝑥2 Example.
𝑥→2
Solution. lim 𝑥2 = lim 𝑥 ∙ lim 𝑥 Solution.
𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2
=2∙2=4 4 −16 (𝑥 2 +4)(𝑥 2 −4) (𝑥 2 +4)(𝑥+2)(𝑥−2) (𝑥 2 +4)(𝑥+2)
Example. 2. lim (2𝑥2 + 3) 3 −8 = (𝑥−2)(𝑥 2 +2𝑥+4) = (𝑥−2)(𝑥 2 +2𝑥+4)
= (𝑥 2 +2𝑥+4)
𝑥→−1
Solution. lim (2𝑥2 + 3) = lim (2𝑥2) + lim 3
𝑥→−1 𝑥→−1 𝑥→−1
= lim 2 ∙ lim 𝑥 + lim 3
𝑥→−1 𝑥→-1 𝑥→−1
= 2(−1)(−1) + 3 = 5
Theorem 7 (The Limit of a Quotient) If 𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔 are (by theorem 4)
two functions with lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿1 and lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐿2, 𝐿2
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
≠ 0, then lim f(𝑥) = L1 . (by
𝑥→𝑎𝑔(𝑥) L2 theorem 11)

1. lim x
2
Example.
𝑥→3 3𝑥−2
Solution. lim 𝑥2 = 𝑥→3 lim x2
3.3 9
𝑥→3 3x-2 lim 3x-2 = 7 (by
3.3-2 theorem 7)
𝑥→3
Example. 2.
Solution.
√1+ℎ−1 √1+ℎ−1 √1+ℎ+1 (1+ℎ)−1 1
ℎ
= ℎ
∙ √1+ℎ+1 = ℎ(√1+ℎ+1) = √1+ℎ+1 , ℎ≠0