INTEGRATION

WEEK 8: INTEGRATION
8.1 TERMINOLOGY AND BASIC INTEGRATION RULES

There are two types of integrals: Indefinite and Definite. Indefinite integrals are those with no limits
and definite integrals have limits. When dealing with indefinite integrals, you need to add a constant
of integration. For example, if integrating a function 𝑓(𝑥) with respect to x:

∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑔(𝑥) + 𝐶,

Where 𝑔(𝑥) is the integrated function. C is an arbitrary constant called the constant of integration
and 𝑑𝑥 indicated the variable with respect to which we are integrating, in this case, 𝑥. The function
being integrated, 𝑓(𝑥), is called the integrand.

The integral of many functions are well known, and there are useful rules to work out the integral of
more complication functions, which are shown in Figure 8.1 below. The summary of the common
procedures for fitting integrands to the basic integration rules is given in Figure 8.2.

8.2 TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION

This section will discussed in more detail three methods of integration: Integration by parts, the
substitution method and partial fractions.

8.2.1 INTEGRATION BY PARTS

One of the important integration techniques is called integration by parts. This technique can be
applied to a wide variety of functions and is particularly useful for integrands involving products of
algebraic and transcendental functions.

If 𝑓 and 𝑔 are differentiable functions, then the Product Rule yields

𝑑
𝑑𝑥
[𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔′ (𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)𝑓 ′ (𝑥) ……..(1)

In the form of indefinite integrals, Eq (1) becomes

∫[𝑓(𝑥)𝑔′ (𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)𝑓 ′ (𝑥)]𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)

Then, rearranging the equation yields

∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔′ (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) − ∫ 𝑔(𝑥)𝑓 ′ (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 ……(2)

Eq (2) gives the formula for integration by parts.

1
Figure 8.1: Basic Integration Rules (𝑎 > 0)

2
 Figure 8.2: Procedures for Fitting Integrands to Basic Rule

It is perhaps easier to remember in the following notation.

Let 𝑢 = 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑣 = 𝑔(𝑥). Then the differentials are 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 and 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑔′ (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥. So, by
the Substitution Rule, the formula for integration by parts becomes

∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑢

Example 8.1

1. Find ∫ 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Solution

First method
Suppose we choose 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 and 𝑔′ (𝑥) = sin 𝑥. Then 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 1 and 𝑔(𝑥) = − cos 𝑥. Note that for
𝑔, we can choose any antiderivative of 𝑔′ . Thus, using the formula in Eq 2,

∫ 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) − ∫ 𝑔(𝑥)𝑓 ′ (𝑥)𝑑𝑥

= 𝑥(−cos 𝑥) − ∫(− cos 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

= −𝑥 cos 𝑥 + ∫ cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= −𝑥 cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥 + 𝐶

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Second method

Let:

𝑢=𝑥 𝑑𝑣 = sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑣 = − cos 𝑥

u dv

∫ 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

u v u du

= 𝑥(−cos 𝑥) − ∫(− cos 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

= −𝑥 cos 𝑥 + ∫ cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= −𝑥 cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥 + 𝐶

We can evaluate definite integrals by parts. By evaluating both sides of Eq 2 (formula for integration
by parts) between 𝑎 and 𝑏, assuming 𝑓 ′ and 𝑔′ are continuous, and using the Fundamental Theorem
of Calculus, we get
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔′ (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)] − ∫ 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎

We could also use trigonometric identities to integrate certain combinations of trigonometric

functions.

Example 8.2

Find ∫ sin5 𝑥 cos2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Solution

We could convert cos2 𝑥 to 1 − sin2 𝑥, but we would be left with an expression in terms of
sin 𝑥 with no extra cos 𝑥 factor. Therefore, we could separate a single sine factor and rewrite the
remaining sin4 factor in terms of cos 𝑥 factor.

sin5 𝑥 cos2 𝑥 = ( sin2 𝑥)2 cos2 𝑥 sin 𝑥

= (1 − cos 2 𝑥)2 cos 2 𝑥 sin 𝑥

Substituting 𝑢 = cos 𝑥, then 𝑑𝑢 = − sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

∫ sin5 𝑥 cos 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(1 − cos 2 𝑥 )2 cos2 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

4
 = ∫(1 − 𝑢2 )2 𝑢2 (−𝑑𝑢)

= − ∫(𝑢2 − 2𝑢4 + 𝑢6 )𝑑𝑢

𝑢3 𝑢5 𝑢7
= −( − 2 + ) +𝐶
3 5 7

1 2 1
= − cos3 𝑥 + cos 5 𝑥 − cos7 𝑥 + 𝐶
3 5 7
We can use a similar strategy to evaluate integrals of the form ∫ tan𝑚 𝑥 sec 𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥, where 𝑚 >
0, 𝑛 > 0 are integers.
𝑑
Since (𝑑𝑥) tan 𝑥 = sec 2 𝑥, we could separate a sec 2 𝑥 factor and convert the remaining (even) power
of secant to an expression involving tangent using the following identity:

sec 2 𝑥 = 1 + tan2 𝑥

Another way is to separate a sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 factor and convert the remaining (even) power of tangent
𝑑
to secant since (𝑑𝑥) sec 𝑥 = sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 .

As for other cases, the use of identities, integration by parts, and occasionally a little ingenuity may
come handy. The following formulas and trigonometric identities are also useful:

∫ tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ln|sec 𝑥| + 𝐶

∫ sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ln|sec 𝑥 + tan 𝑥| + 𝐶

1
sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵 = [sin(𝐴 − 𝐵) + sin(𝐴 + 𝐵)]
2
1
sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵 = [cos(𝐴 − 𝐵) − cos(𝐴 + 𝐵)]
2
1
cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 = [cos(𝐴 − 𝐵) + cos(𝐴 + 𝐵)]
2
Example 8.3

Find ∫(𝑥 2 )(𝑒 𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥

Solution

Observe that the above integral cannot be solved by any of our previous methods. Further, the
integrals of both the functions (i.e., x2 and ex ) are equally easy. However, since x2 is a power function,
we choose ex as the second function.

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 [ Note : Of the two functions in the integrand, if one function is a power function (i.e., x, x2 , x3 , ...)
and the other function is easy to integrate, then we choose the other one as the second function. If
power function is chosen as second function, then its index will keep on increasing when the rule of
integration by parts is applied. As a result, the resulting integral so obtained will be more difficult to
evaluate, than the given integral.]

∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥
Lets, integral of ∫ (𝑥 2 )(𝑒 𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 is using { 𝑑
(𝑥 2 ) = 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥

Thus,

= 𝑥 2 . 𝑒 𝑥 − ∫(2𝑥) . 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥
2 𝑥 𝑥 { 𝑑
=𝑥 .𝑒 − 2 ∫ 𝑥 . 𝑒 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥) = 1
𝑑𝑥
= 𝑥 2 . 𝑒 𝑥 − 2 [𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 − ∫ 1 . 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ]

= 𝑥 2 . 𝑒 𝑥 − 2𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 + 2 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑐 ans

Now let us see what happens if we choose x2 as the second function.

𝑥3
∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 3
Consider the integration of ∫(𝑥 2 )(𝑒 𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 is using { 𝑑 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒

Integrating by parts, we get

𝑥3 𝑥3
= 𝑒𝑥 . 3
− ∫ 𝑒𝑥 . 3
𝑑𝑥

1 1
= 3 𝑒 𝑥. 𝑥3 − 3
∫ 𝑒 𝑥 . 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥

Observe that the resulting integral on right-hand side is more complicated than the given integral.
This is due to our wrong choice of the second function.

Example 8.4

Find ∫(𝑥 2 )(𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

Solution

Observe that

(i) The given integral cannot be evaluated by any of our previous methods.
(ii) The integrals of both the parts (i.e., x2 and cos x) are equally simple. But we should not
choose x2 as a second function.

Therefore, we choose x2 as first function, and cos x as second function

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 𝑑
𝑑𝑥
𝑥 2 = 2𝑥
Thus, the integration of ∫(𝑥 2 )(𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 will use the {
∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥

Now, integrating by parts, we get, 𝑑

(𝑥) = 1
= 𝑥 2 . 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 − ∫(2𝑥) (𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= 𝑥 2 . 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 − 2 ∫ 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥

{

Again, integrating by parts, the resulting integral, we get,

= 𝑥 2 . 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 − 2 [𝑥. (−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥) − ∫(1)(−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥)𝑑𝑥]

= 𝑥 2 . 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 − 2 ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= x2 sin x + 2x cos x -2 (sin x) + c

= x2 sin x + 2x cos x -2 sin x + c (ans)

8.2.2 TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION

In finding the area of a circle or an ellipse, an integral of the form ∫ √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 arises, where 𝑎 >
0. If it were ∫ 𝑥√𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥, the substitution 𝑢 = 𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 would be effective. However,

∫ √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 … … (3)

Eq (3) would be more challenging. If we change the variable from 𝑥 to 𝜃 by the substitution of 𝑥 =
𝑎 sin 𝜃. Then, the root sign of Eq (3) can be removed by making use of the identity 1 − sin2 𝜃 =
cos2 𝜃. This is shown as below:

√𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 = √𝑎2 − 𝑎2 sin2 𝜃

= √𝑎2 (1 − sin2 𝜃

= √𝑎2 cos 2 𝜃

= 𝑎|cos 𝜃|

Notice the difference between the substitution 𝑢 = 𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 (in which the new variable is a function
of the old one) and the substitution 𝑥 = 𝑎 sin 𝜃 (the old variable is a function of the new one).

7
In general, we can make a substitution of the form 𝑥 = 𝑔(𝑡) by using the Substitution Rule in
reverse. To make our calculations simpler, we assume that g has an inverse function; that is, g is
one-to-one.

In this case, if we replace 𝑢 by 𝑥 and 𝑥 by 𝑡 in the Substitution Rule, we get

∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑔(𝑡))𝑔′ (𝑡)𝑑𝑡

This type of substitution is called the inverse substitution. The inverse substitution of 𝑥 = 𝑎 sin 𝜃 can
be made provided that it defines a one-to-one function. This can be accomplished by restricting 𝜃 to
𝜋 𝜋
lie in the interval [− 2 , 2 ]

Table 8.1 below shows a list of trigonometric substitutions which are effective for the given radical
expressions because of the specified trigonometric identities. The restriction on 𝜃 is imposed in each
of the cases shown in Table 8.1 to ensure that the function that defines the substitution is one-to-
one.

Table 8.1: Table of Trigonometric Substitution

Example 8.5

Evaluate

√9 − 𝑥 2
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2

Solution
Let 𝑥 = 3 sin 𝜃, where −𝜋/2 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋/2. Then, 𝑑𝑥 = 3 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃.

√9 − 𝑥 2 = √9 − 9sin2 𝜃

= √9 cos 2 𝜃

8
 = 3| cos 𝜃|

= 3 cos 𝜃

(Note that cos 𝜃 ≥ 0 because −𝜋/2 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋/2.) Thus using the Inverse Substitution Rule:

√9 − 𝑥 2 3 cos 𝜃
∫ 2
𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 3 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑥 9sin2 𝜃

cos 2 𝜃
=∫ 𝑑𝜃
sin2 𝜃

= ∫ cot 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

= ∫(csc 2 𝜃 − 1)𝑑𝜃

= − cot 𝜃 − 𝜃 + 𝐶

Since this is an indefinite integral, we must return to the original variable x. This can be done either
by
using trigonometric identities to express cot 𝜃 in terms of sin 𝜃 = 𝑥/3 or by drawing a diagram, as in
Figure 8.3, where 𝜃 is interpreted as an angle of a right triangle.

Figure 8.3: sin 𝜃 = 𝑥/3

Based on the Pythagorean Theorem, the length of the adjacent side can be expressed as

√9 − 𝑥 2

Then, we can simply read the value of cot 𝜃 from the figure:

√9 − 𝑥 2
cot 𝜃 =
𝑥
(Although 𝜃 > 0 in the diagram, this expression for cot 𝜃 is valid even when 𝜃 < 0). Since
sin 𝜃 = 𝑥/3, then 𝜃 = sin−1 (𝑥/3). Therefore

√9 − 𝑥 2 √9 − 𝑥 2 𝑥
∫ 2
𝑑𝑥 = − − sin−1 ( ) + 𝐶
𝑥 𝑥 3

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Example 8.6

Find
𝑥3
∫ 𝑑𝑥
√9 − 𝑥 2

Solution

Lets , x= 3 sin t

𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡
= 27 ∫ 𝑑𝑡
√1− 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑡

= 27 ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝑡 𝑑𝑥

= 27 ∫(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑡) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡 𝑑𝑥

𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝑡
= 27 (− 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡 + ) + 𝐶
3

1
= 27 (− √1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑡 + (1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑡)3/2 ) + 𝐶
3

1
= − 9 √9 − 𝑥 2 + (9 − 𝑥 2 )3/2 + 𝐶
3

Where, x = 3 sin t , dx = 3 cos t dt

8.2.3 PARTIAL FRACTIONS

This section demonstrates a method to integrate any rational function (a ratio of polynomials) by
expressing it as a sum of simpler fractions, called partial fractions, that we already know how to
integrate.
2 1
To illustrate the method, observe that by taking the fractions (𝑥−1) and (𝑥+2) to a common
denominator, the expression becomes

2 1 2(𝑥 + 2) − (𝑥 − 1)
− =
(𝑥 − 1) (𝑥 + 2) (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 2)
𝑥+5
=
𝑥2 +𝑥−2
If we reverse the procedure, we see how to integrate the function on the right side of the following
equation.

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 𝑥+5 2 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ ( − ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2 +𝑥−2 (𝑥 − 1) (𝑥 + 2)

= 2 ln|𝑥 − 1| − ln|𝑥 + 2| + 𝐶

In order to illustrate the method, let

𝑃(𝑥)
𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑄(𝑥)

Be a rational function where 𝑃(𝑥) and 𝑄(𝑥) are polynomials. The function 𝑓(𝑥) can be expressed as
a sum of simpler fractions provided that the degree of P is less than the degree of Q. Such a rational
function is called proper.

If,

𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0

Where 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0, then the degree of P is n and we write deg(P) = n. If f is improper, that is, deg(P) 
deg(Q), then we must take the preliminary step of dividing Q into P (by long division) until a
remainder R (x) is obtained such that deg(R) < deg(Q).

The division statement is

𝑃(𝑥) 𝑅(𝑥)
𝑓(𝑥) = = 𝑆(𝑥) + … . . (4)
𝑄(𝑥) 𝑄(𝑥)

where S and R are also polynomials.

As the next example illustrates, sometimes this preliminary step is all that is required.

Example 8.7

Find

𝑥3 + 𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥−1

Solution

Since the degree of the numerator is greater than the degree of the denominator, we first perform
the long division.

𝑥3 + 𝑥 2
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 2 + ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥−1 𝑥−1
𝑥3 𝑥2
= + + 2𝑥 + 2 ln|𝑥 − 1| + 𝐶
3 2
From Eq (4), if the denominator is more complicated, then the next step is to factor the denominator
Q (x) as far as possible. It can be shown that any polynomial Q can be factored as a product of linear

11
factors (of the form ax + b) and irreducible quadratic factors (of the form 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐, where 𝑏 2 −
4𝑎𝑐 < 0.

For example, if 𝑄(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 − 16, we could factor it as

𝑄(𝑥) = (𝑥 2 − 4)(𝑥 2 + 4) = (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 2 + 4)

Then, the next step is to express the proper rational function 𝑅(𝑥)/𝑄(𝑥) in Eq (4) as a sum of partial
fractions of the following form

𝐴 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵
𝑜𝑟
(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑖 (𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐)𝑗

A theorem in algebra guarantees that it is always possible to do this. We explain the details for the
four cases that occur:

a) The denominator 𝑄(𝑥) is a product of distinct linear factors

b) 𝑄(𝑥) is a product of linear factors, some of which are repeated
c) 𝑄(𝑥) contains irreducible quadratic factors, none of which is repeated
d) 𝑄(𝑥) contains a repeated irreducible quadratic factor

8.2.3.1 CASE 1: Q(X) IS A PRODUCT OF DISTINCT LINEAR FACTORS

For this case, we could expressed 𝑄(𝑥) as

𝑄(𝑥) = (𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 )(𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 ) … (𝑎𝑘 𝑥 + 𝑏𝑘 ),

Where no factor is repeated and no factor is a constant multiple of another. Hence, in this case, the
partial fraction theorem states that there exist constant 𝐴1 , 𝐴2 , … , 𝐴𝑘 such that

𝑅(𝑥) 𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴𝑘
= + + ⋯+ … . (5)
𝑄(𝑥) 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑎𝑘 𝑥 + 𝑏𝑘

Example 8.8

Evaluate

𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥

Solution

Since the degree of the numerator is less than the degree of the denominator, we don’t need to
divide. We factor the denominator as

2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 = 𝑥(2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 2)

= 𝑥(2𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 2)

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Then,

𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 1 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
= + +
𝑥(2𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 2) 𝑥 2𝑥 − 1 𝑥 + 2

In order to determine the constant 𝐴, 𝐵 and C, multiply both sides of the equation by the product of
the denominators to give

𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 1 = 𝐴(2𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 2) + 𝐵𝑥(𝑥 + 2) + 𝐶𝑥(2𝑥 − 1)

= (2𝐴 + 𝐵 + 2𝐶)𝑥 2 + (3𝐴 + 2𝐵 − 𝐶)𝑥 − 2𝐴

System of equations:

2𝐴 + 𝐵 + 2𝐶 = 1

3𝐴 + 2𝐵 − 𝐶 = 2

−2𝐴 = −1
1 1 1
Thus, 𝐴 = 2 , 𝐵 = 5 , 𝐶 = − 10

𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 1 11 1 1 1 1
∫ 3 2
𝑑𝑥 = ∫ ( + − ) 𝑑𝑥
2𝑥 + 3𝑥 − 2𝑥 2 𝑥 5 2𝑥 − 1 10 𝑥 + 2
1 1 1
= ln|𝑥| + ln|2𝑥 − 1| − ln|𝑥 + 2| + 𝐾
2 10 10

Note that in integrating the middle term, the following substitutions have been made:

1
𝑢 = 2𝑥 − 1, 𝑑𝑢 = 2𝑑𝑥, then 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑢
2

8.2.3.2 CASE 2: Q(X) IS A PRODUCT OF DISTINCT LINEAR FACTORS, SOME OF WHICH

ARE REPEATED

Suppose the first linear factor (𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 ) is repeated 𝑟 times, that is, (𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 )𝑟 occurs in the
factorization of 𝑄(𝑥). Then, instead of the single term in Eq (5), we could use

𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴𝑟
+ + ⋯ + … . (6)
𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 (𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 )2 (𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 )𝑟

Example 8.9

Find

𝑥 4 − 2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥3 − 𝑥2 − 𝑥 + 1

13
Solution

The first step is to divide using long division, which gives

𝑥 4 − 2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 1 4𝑥
3 2
= 𝑥+1+ 3
𝑥 −𝑥 −𝑥+1 𝑥 − 𝑥2 − 𝑥 + 1
The next step is to factor out the denominator

𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1 = (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 2 − 1)

= (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1)

= (𝑥 − 1)2 (𝑥 + 1)

Hence,

4𝑥 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
2
= + 2
+
(𝑥 − 1) (𝑥 + 1) 𝑥 − 1 (𝑥 − 1) 𝑥+1

4𝑥 = 𝐴(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1) + 𝐵(𝑥 + 1) + 𝐶(𝑥 − 1)2

Equate coefficients, we obtain 𝐴 = 1, 𝐵 = 2, 𝐶 = −1. Hence,

𝑥 4 − 2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 1 1 2 1
∫ 3 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ [𝑥 + 1 + + − ] 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 − 𝑥2 − 𝑥 + 1 𝑥 − 1 (𝑥 − 1)2 𝑥 + 1

𝑥2 2
= + 𝑥 + ln|𝑥 − 1| − − ln|𝑥 + 1| + 𝐾
2 𝑥−1
𝑥2 2 𝑥−1
= +𝑥− + ln| | +𝐾
2 𝑥−1 𝑥+1

Try this,

𝑥2 − 𝑥 + 1
Please integrate, ∫ 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 + 1)3

Answer:

8.2.3.3 CASE 3: Q(X) CONTAINS IRREDUCIBLE QUADRATIC FACTORS, NONE OF WHICH

IS REPEATED

If 𝑄(𝑥) has the factor 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐, where 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 < 0, then, in addition to the partial fractions in
Eq (5) and (6), the expression for 𝑅(𝑥)/𝑄(𝑥) will have a term of the form

14
 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵
… . . (7)
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
Where A and B are constants to be determined. The term in Eq (7) can be integrated by completing
squares (if necessary) and using the following formula

𝑑𝑥 1 𝑥
∫ = tan−1 ( ) + 𝐶
𝑥2 +𝑎 2 𝑎 𝑎

Example 8.10

Evaluate

4𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2
∫ 𝑑𝑥
4𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 3

Solution

Since the degree of the numerator is not less than the degree of the denominator, we divide the
expression, which yield

4𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2 𝑥−1
2
=1+ 2
4𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 3 4𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 3

Note that the quadratic 4𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 3 is irreducible because its discriminant 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = −32 < 0.
Hence, we complete the square

4𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 3 = (2𝑥 − 1)2 + 2

Let

1
𝑢 = 2𝑥 − 1, 𝑑𝑢 = 2𝑑𝑥, 𝑥 = (𝑢 + 1)
2
Hence,

4𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2 𝑥−1
∫ 2
𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (1 + 2 ) 𝑑𝑥
4𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 3 4𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 3
1
1 2 (𝑢 + 1) − 1
=𝑥+ ∫ 𝑑𝑢
2 𝑢2 + 2
1 𝑢−1
=𝑥+ ∫ 2 𝑑𝑢
4 𝑢 +2
1 𝑢 1 1
=𝑥+ ∫ 2 𝑑𝑢 − ∫ 2 𝑑𝑢
4 𝑢 +2 4 𝑢 +2
1 1 1 𝑢
= 𝑥 + ln(𝑢2 + 2) − . tan−1 ( ) + 𝐶
8 4 √2 √2

15
 1 1 2𝑥 − 1
= 𝑥 + ln(4𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 3) − tan−1 ( )+𝐶
8 4√2 √2

Try this,

3𝑥 + 1
Please integrate ∫ 2 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 (𝑥 + 25 )

Answer:

8.2.3.4 CASE 4: Q(X) CONTAINS A REPEATED IRREDUCIBLE QUADRATIC FACTOR

If 𝑄(𝑥) has the factor (𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐)𝑟 , where 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 < 0, then

𝐴1 𝑥 + 𝐵1 𝐴2 𝑥 + 𝐵2 𝐴𝑟 𝑥 + 𝐵𝑟
2
+ 2 2
+⋯ … . . (8)
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐) (𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐)𝑟

occurs in the partial fraction decomposition of 𝑅(𝑥)/𝑄(𝑥). Each of the terms in Eq (8) can be
integrated using a substitution or by first completing the square if necessary.

Example 8.11

Evaluate

1 − 𝑥 + 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥(𝑥 2 + 1)2

Solution

The form of the partial fraction decomposition is

1 − 𝑥 + 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3 𝐴 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸
2 2
= + 2 + 2
𝑥(𝑥 + 1) 𝑥 𝑥 + 1 (𝑥 + 1)2

Then

−𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1 = 𝐴(𝑥 2 + 1)2 + (𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶)𝑥(𝑥 2 + 1) + (𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸)𝑥

= (𝐴 + 𝐵)𝑥 4 + 𝐶𝑥 3 + (2𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐷)𝑥 2 + (𝐶 + 𝐸)𝑥 + 𝐴

Equating coefficients, we obtain 𝐴 = 1, 𝐵 = −1, 𝐶 = −1, 𝐷 = 1, 𝐸 = 0.

16
 1 − 𝑥 + 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3 1 𝑥+1 𝑥
∫ 2 2
𝑑𝑥 = ∫ ( − 2 + 2 ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥(𝑥 + 1) 𝑥 𝑥 + 1 (𝑥 + 1)2

𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
=∫ −∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 2 +∫ 2
𝑥 𝑥 +1 𝑥 +1 (𝑥 + 1)2

1 1
= ln|𝑥| − ln(𝑥 2 + 1) − tan−1 𝑥 − 2
+𝐾
2 2(𝑥 + 1)

8.3 IMPROPER INTEGRALS

In this sub section, extend the concept of a definite integral to the case where the interval is infinite
and also to the case where f has an infinite discontinuity in [a, b]. In either case the integral is called
an improper integral

8.3.1 TYPE 1: INFINITE INTERVALS

Consider the infinite region 𝒮 that lies under the curve 𝑦 = 1/𝑥 2 , above the x-axis, and to the right
of line 𝑥 = 1. This is shown in Figure 8.4.

Figure 8.4: 𝑦 = 1/𝑥 2

You might think that since 𝒮 is infinite in extent, its area must be infinite, but let’s take a closer look.
From Figure 8.4, we can see that the area of the part of 𝒮 that lies to the left of the line 𝑥 = 𝑡
(shaded area) is
𝑡
1 1𝑡
𝐴(𝑡) = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = − ]
1 𝑥2 𝑥1

1
=1−
𝑡
Notice that 𝐴(𝑡) < 1 no matter how large 𝑡 is chosen. We also observe that

1
lim 𝐴(𝑡) = lim (1 − ) = 1
𝑡→∞ 𝑡→∞ 𝑡
This is shown in Figure 8.5.

17
 Figure 8.5: Area under the curve as 𝑡 → ∞

Using this example as a guide, we define the integral of f over an infinite interval as the limit of
integrals over finite intervals. Figure 8.6 shows the definition of an improper integral of Type 1.

Figure 8.6: Definition of an improper integral of Type 1

Example 8.12
∞ 1
Determine whether the integral ∫1 ( ) 𝑑𝑥 is convergent or divergent
𝑥

Solution
∞
1
∫ ( ) 𝑑𝑥 = lim ln|𝑥|]1𝑡 = lim (ln 𝑡 − ln 1)
1 𝑥 𝑡→∞ 𝑡→∞

= lim ln 𝑡 = ∞
𝑡→∞

The limit does not exist as a finite number and so the improper integral is divergent.

18
8.3.2 TYPE 2: DISCONTINUOUS INTEGRANDS

Suppose that 𝑓 is a positive continuous function defined on a finite interval [a, b) but has a vertical
asymptote at b. Let S be the unbounded region under the graph of f and above the x-axis between a
and b. (For Type 1 integrals, the regions extended indefinitely in a horizontal direction. Here the
region is infinite in a vertical direction.)

The area of the part of S between a and t (the shaded region in Figure 8.7) is
𝑡
𝐴(𝑡) = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎

Figure 8.7: Area of the part of S

If it happen that 𝐴(𝑡) approaches a definite number 𝐴 as 𝑡 → 𝑏 − , then we say that the area of the
region S is 𝐴 and we could write
𝑏 𝑏
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = lim− ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑡→𝑏 𝑎

We use this equation to define an improper integral of Type 2 even when 𝑓 is not a positive function,
no matter what type of discontinuity 𝑓 has at b. Figure 8.8 below presents the definition of an
improper Integral of Type 2.

19
 Figure 8.8: Definition of an improper integral of Type 2

Example 8.13

Find
5
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
2 √𝑥 − 2

Solution
1
The given integral is improper because 𝑓(𝑥) = has the vertical asymptote at 𝑥 = 2. Since the
√𝑥−2
infinite discontinuity occurs at the left endpoint of [2, 5], we use part (b) of the definition in Figure
8.8.
5 5
1 𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = lim+ ∫
2 √𝑥 − 2 𝑡→2 𝑡 √𝑥 − 2
5
= lim+2√𝑥 − 2]𝑡 = lim+(√3 − √𝑡 − 2)
𝑡→2 𝑡→2

= 2√3

Thus the given improper integral is convergent and, since the integrand is positive, we can interpret
the value of the integral as the area of the shaded region in Figure 8.9.

20
 1
Figure 8.9: 𝑦 = 𝑥−2
√

8.3.3 A COMPARISON TEST FOR IMPROPER INTEGRALS

Sometimes it is impossible to find the exact value of an improper integral and yet it is important to
know whether it is convergent or divergent.

In such cases the following theorem is useful. Although we state it for Type 1 integrals, a similar
theorem is true for Type 2 integrals.

We omit the proof of the Comparison Theorem, but Figure 8.10 makes it seem plausible.

Figure 8.10: Area under the curve

If the area under the top curve y = f (x) is finite, then so is the area under the bottom curve y = g (x).

If the area under y = g (x) is infinite, then so is the area under y = f (x). [Note that the reverse is not
∞ ∞
necessarily true: If ∫𝑎 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 is convergent, ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 may or may not be convergent, and if
∞ ∞
∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 is divergent, ∫𝑎 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 may or may not be divergent.]

21
ENGINEERING APPLICATION OF INTEGRALS
WEEK 9: ENGINEERING APPLICATION OF INTEGRALS
9.1 (I) AREA BETWEEN CURVES

In this section we will determine the area of a region between two curves by integrating with respect
to the independent variable. The area of a region between two curves will also be determined using
definite integration with respect to the dependent variable. We also try to find the area of a
compound region.
Let f(x) and g(x) be continuous functions over an interval [a,b] such that f(x)≥g(x) on [a,b] .
We want to find the area between the graphs of the functions, as shown in Figure 9.1.

Figure 9.1: The area between the graphs of two functions, f(x) and g(x) , on the interval [a,b]

As we did before, we are going to partition the interval on the x-axis and approximate the area
between the graphs of the functions with rectangles. So, for i=0,1,2,…,n , let P=xi be a regular
partition of [a,b] . Then, for i=1,2,…,n, choose a point x∗i∈[xi−1,xi] , and on each interval [xi−1,xi]
construct a rectangle that extends vertically from g(x∗i) to f(x∗i) . Figure 9.2(a) shows the rectangles
when x∗i is selected to be the left endpoint of the interval and n=10 . Figure 9.2(b) shows a
representative rectangle in detail.

Figure 9.2 : (a)We can approximate the area between the graphs of two functions, f(x) and g(x) ,
with rectangles. (b) The area of a typical rectangle goes from one curve to the other.

22
 The height of each individual rectangle is f(x∗i)−g(x∗i) and the width of each rectangle is Δx .
Adding the areas of all the rectangles, we see that the area between the curves is approximated by:
𝑛

𝐴 ≈ ∑[𝑓(𝑥𝑖∗ ) − 𝑔(𝑥𝑖∗ )]∆𝑥 (9.1)

𝑖=1

This is a Riemann sum, so we take the limit as n→∞ and we get,

𝑛 𝑏
𝐴 = lim ∑[𝑓(𝑥𝑖∗ ) − 𝑔(𝑥𝑖∗ )]∆𝑥 = ∫ [𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥 (9.2)
𝑛→∝ 𝑎
𝑖=1

In conclusion, let f(x) and g(x) be continuous functions such that f(x)≥g(x) over an interval [ a,b] .
Let “R” denote the region bounded above by the graph of f(x) , below by the graph of g(x) , and on
the left and right by the lines x=a and x=b , respectively. Then, the area of “R” is given by,

𝑏
𝐴 = ∫ [𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥 (9.3)
𝑎

EXAMPLE 9.1
Find the area bounded by two curves, f(x) = −x2 + 4x + 3 and g(x) = −x3 +7x2 −10x+5 over the interval 1
≤ x ≤ 2.

Solution:
The region can be depicted as shown in Figure 9.3(a) with the desired area shaded. Also, we can
depict f alone with the area under f shaded, and then g alone with the area under g shaded.

Figure 9.3: Area between curves as a difference of areas

23
It is clear from the figure that the area we want is the area under f minus the area under g, which
can be written as,

2 2 2
𝐴 = ∫1 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 − ∫1 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫1 [𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥
2
= ∫1 [(−𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 3) − (−𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 + 5)]𝑑𝑥
2
𝑥4 8𝑥 3
= 4
− 3
+ 7𝑥 2 − 2𝑥|
1
49
=12

EXAMPLE 9.2
If R is the region bounded above by the graph of the function f(x) = 9−(x/2)2 and below by the graph
of the function g(x)=6−x, find the area of region R.

Solution:
The region can be depicted by the following figure.

Figure 9.4 : This graph shows the region below the graph of f(x) and above the graph of g(x).

We first need to compute where the graphs of the functions intersect. Setting f(x)=g(x), we get,

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥
9 − ( )2 = 6 − 𝑥
2
36 − 𝑥 2 = 24 − 𝑥
(𝑥 − 6)(𝑥 + 2) = 0
𝑥 = (6, −2)
The graphs of the functions intersect when x=6 or x=−2, so we want to integrate from −2 to 6 .
Since f(x)≥g(x) for −2≤x≤6, we obtain,

24
9.1 (II) AREAS OF COMPOUND REGIONS

So far, we have required, f(x) ≥ g(x) over the entire interval of interest, but what if we want to look
at regions bounded by the graphs of functions that cross one another? In that case, we modify the
process we just developed by using the absolute value function.

EXAMPLE 9.3
Finding the Area of a Region Bounded by Functions That Cross
If R is the region between the graphs of the functions f(x) =sinx and g(x) = cosx over the interval
[0,π] , find the area of region R .
The region can be depicted by the following figure.

Figure 9.5 : The region between two curves can be broken into two sub-regions.

The graphs of the functions intersect at x=π/4. For x∈[0,π/4], cosx≥sinx, thus,
|𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)| = |𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥| = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥

On the other hand, for x∈[π/4,π], sinx≥cosx, thus,

25
 |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)| = |𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥| = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
Now,
𝑏
𝐴= ∫𝑎 [𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥
𝜋
= ∫0 [𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥]𝑑𝑥
𝜋/4 𝜋
= ∫0 [𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥]𝑑𝑥 + ∫𝜋/4[𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥]𝑑𝑥

= (√2 − 1) + (1 + √2)

= 2√2

EXAMPLE 9.4
Consider the region depicted in Figure 9.6 . Find the area of R .

Figure 9.6 : Two integrals are required to calculate the area of this region.

As with Example 9.3, we need to divide the interval into two pieces. The graphs of the functions
intersect at x=1 (set f(x)=g(x) and solve for x), so we evaluate two separate integrals: one over the
interval [0,1] and one over the interval [1,2] .

Over the interval [0,1] , the region is bounded above by f(x)=x2 and below by the x-axis, so we have,
1
𝑥3 1
𝐴1 = ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = =
0 3 3
Over the interval [1,2], the region is bounded above by g(x)=2−x and below by the x-axis, so we
have,
2
1
𝐴2 = ∫ (2 − 𝑥)𝑑𝑥 =
1 2

26
Adding these areas together, we obtain, A = A1+A2 = 5/6
The area of the region is, 5/6 units2.

9.2 HYDROSTATIC FORCE

In this section, we will learn about the force exerted by a fluid on a horizontal surface. Also, we will
determine the hydrostatic force against a vertical surface.

9.2 (I) FORCE EXERTED BY A FLUID ON A HORIZONTAL SURFACE

Deep-sea divers know that pressure increases as they swim deeper because their bodies have to
support larger volumes of water. If a planar plate with an area of A square meters is submerged
horizontally in a fluid at a depth of d meters, as in Figure 9.7, then the volume of the fluid above the
plate is V = Ad. Moreover, the mass m of the fluid above the plate is m = V ω where ω is the mass
density of the fluid in kilograms per cubic meter. Applying Newton’s Second Law of Motion, the force
exerted by the fluid on the plate is:

Force = mg = Adωg

Figure 9.7: A plate of area A is submerged horizontally in a fluid of depth d.

Where, g is the acceleration due to gravity. The product ω = ωg is called the weight density of the
fluid, and is the weight per unit volume of the fluid. Then the force exerted by the fluid on the plate
at a depth d meters is given by:

Force = (Area) · (Depth) · (Weight Density) = Adω’

Consequently, the pressure or force per unit area weighing on the horizontal plate is defined as:

Force
Pressure = = dω′
Area

27
The above equation implies that the pressure is directly proportional to the depth. This is why a
deep-sea diver experiences more pressure as he or she swims deeper.

9.2 (II) HYDROSTATIC FORCE AGAINST A VERTICAL SURFACE

Early in the section, we described the force exerted by a fluid on a horizontal surface without using
calculus, see Definition 8. However, in order to find the force exerted by a fluid on a vertical surface
we have to apply calculus. In addition, we apply a physical principle due to Blaise Pascal, i.e., at a
fixed depth a fluid exerts the same pressure in all directions.
We draw a y-axis so that the depths of a vertical surface vary from points y = c to y = d on the y-
axis. Then partition [c, d] into n subintervals of equal width Δy. If Δy is small, the portion of the
vertical plate associated to the ith subinterval [yi−1, yi] is approximately a vertical rectangular strip Ri
of length L(yi) and width Δy. Moreover, the depth of Ri from the surface of the fluid is almost
constant and which we denote by d(yi). Applying the above principle due to Pascal, the force Fi
exerted by the fluid on a vertical rectangle Ri is approximately:

𝐹𝑖 ≈ 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎. 𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ. 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦

≈ [𝐿(𝑦𝑖 )∆𝑦]𝑑𝑦𝑖 𝜔′

We find it reasonable to believe that the sum of the Fi’s approximates the force F exerted by the
fluid on the entire vertical surface, i.e.,
𝑛 𝑛

𝐹 ≈ ∑ 𝐹𝑖 = ∑[𝐿(𝑦𝑖 )∆𝑦]𝑑𝑦𝑖 𝜔′
𝑖=1 𝑖=1

Suppose a y-axis is positioned vertically so that the depths of the fluid vary from points y = c to y = d
on the y-axis. At point y in [c, d], let d(y) and L(y) be the depth and length from side to side of the
surface, respectively. The force exerted by the fluid on one side of the vertical surface is given by:

𝑑
𝐹 = ∫𝑐 𝐿(𝑦). 𝑑(𝑦). 𝑑𝑦 (9.4)

provided d(y) and L(y) are continuous functions of y.

EXAMPLE 9.5
A vertical dam has a cross section that is a trapezoid, see Figure 9.8. The dimensions of the trapezoid
are 10 meters high, 100 meters across the top, and the base is 60 meters. If the dam is filled with
water, find the force exerted by the water on the cross section.

28
Solution:

Figure 9.8: The cross section of a vertical dam.

Since water has a mass density of 1000 kg/m3 and gravity is 9.8 m/sec2, the weight density of water
is:
𝑘𝑔
𝜔′ = 1000. 9.8 = 9800
𝑚2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2

Figure 9.9: The cross section of a vertical dam

Let consider (x, y) is the center of the base of the dam. An equation of the slanted side of the dam in
the first quadrant is:

𝑥
𝑦= − 15
2
𝑥 = 2𝑦 + 30
At point y in [0, 10], the horizontal distance across the dam is:
𝐿(𝑦) = 2𝑥 = 4𝑦 + 60
and the water depth is: 𝑑(𝑦) = 10 − 𝑦

29
 𝑑 10
Now, 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝜔′ ∫𝑐 𝐿(𝑦)𝑑(𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 9800 ∫0 (4𝑦 + 60)(10 − 𝑦)𝑑𝑦
𝑘𝑔.𝑚
= 3.593 × 107 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2

EXAMPLE 9.6
A dam has the shape of the trapezoid shown in Figure 9.10. The height is 20 m and the width is 50 m
at the top and 30 m at the bottom. Find the force on the dam due to hydrostatic pressure if the
water level is 4 m from the top of the dam.

Figure 9.10: A dam with shape of trapezoid

Solution:
• Choose a vertical x-axis with origin at the surface of the water and directed downward
• Divide the depth of water into intervals between [0,16] of equal length
• At the ith strip (𝑥 = 𝑥𝑖∗ ),

𝑎 10
∗ =
16 − 𝑥𝑖 20
From which,
16 − 𝑥𝑖∗ 𝑥𝑖∗
𝑎= =8−
2 2

Width of the dam at the ith strip, 𝑤𝑖 can be found by,

𝑥𝑖∗
𝑤𝑖 = 2(15 + 𝑎) = 2 (15 + 8 − ) = 46 − 𝑥𝑖∗
2
• At the ith strip, the area 𝐴𝑖 can be approximated by,

𝐴𝑖 ≈ 𝑤𝑖 ∆𝑥 = (46 − 𝑥𝑖∗ )∆𝑥

• When ∆𝑥 is small, the pressure acting on the ith strip, 𝑃𝑖 is almost constant:

𝑃𝑖 ≈ 1000𝑔𝑥𝑖∗

30
• The hydrostatic force on the ith strip, 𝐹𝑖 ,

𝐹𝑖 = 𝑃𝑖 𝐴𝑖 ≈ 1000𝑔𝑥𝑖∗ (46 − 𝑥𝑖∗ )∆𝑥

• Adding these forces and taking the limit as n → ∞,
𝑛

𝐹 = lim ∑ 1000𝑔𝑥𝑖∗ (46 − 𝑥𝑖∗ )∆𝑥

𝑛→∞
𝑖=1
16
= ∫ 1000𝑔𝑥(46 − 𝑥)𝑑𝑥
0
16
= 1000(9.8) ∫ (46𝑥 − 𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑥
0
16
𝑥3 2
= 9000 [23𝑥 − ]|
3 0

≈ 4.43 𝑥 107 𝑁

EXAMPLE 9.7
A circular plate with a radius of 1 ft is submerged vertically in a tank filled with water. The center of
the plate is 4 ft from the surface of the water. Find the force exerted by the water on one side of the
plate.

Figure 9.11: A plate with a circular cross section is submerged vertically.

Solution:
Draw a coordinate system where origin is at the center of the circle, see Figure 9.11. Then an
equation of the circular plate of radius 1 is:
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 1

Partition the interval [−1, 1] into smaller subintervals of equal width Δy. The portion of the circle in
the ith subinterval [yi−1, yi] can be approximated by a rectangle Ri of length:

31
 𝐿(𝑦𝑖 ) = 2√(1 − 𝑦𝑖 )2
The distance of any point in Ri from the surface of the water is approximately:

𝑑(𝑦𝑖 ) = 4 − 𝑦𝑖

𝑑 1
Now, 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝜔′ ∫𝑐 𝐿(𝑦)𝑑(𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 62.4 ∫−1(4 − 𝑦). 2√(1 − 𝑦𝑖 )2 𝑑𝑦

1
= 124.8 ∫ [4√(1 − 𝑦𝑖 )2 − 𝑦 √(1 − 𝑦𝑖 )2 ]𝑑𝑦
−1
1 1
= 124.8 ∫ 4√(1 − 𝑦𝑖 )2 𝑑𝑦 − 128.4 ∫ 𝑦 √(1 − 𝑦𝑖 )2 𝑑𝑦
−1 −1

In the above equation, the first integral is the area of a semicircle of radius 1 which is π/2, and
second integral is zero since we are integrating an odd function over [−1, 1]. Then the force is:

𝜋
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 124.8 .4. = 249.6𝜋 ≈ 784 𝑙𝑏.
2

9.3 DISTANCE, VELOCITY, ACCELERATIO N

First recall a general principle that will later be applied to distance-velocity-acceleration problems,
among other things. If F(u) is an anti-derivative of f(u), then:

𝑏
∫ 𝑓(𝑢)𝑑𝑢 = 𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎)
𝑎

Suppose that we want to let the upper limit of integration vary, i.e., we replace b by some variable x.
We think of a as a fixed starting value x0. In this new notation the last equation (after adding F(a) to
both sides) becomes:
𝑥
𝐹(𝑥) = 𝐹(𝑥0) + ∫ 𝑓(𝑢)𝑑𝑢
𝑥𝑜

(Here u is the variable of integration, called a “dummy variable,” since it is not the variable in the
function F(x). In general, it is not a good idea to use the same letter as a variable of integration and
𝑥
as a limit of integration. That is, ∫𝑥𝑜 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 is bad notation, and can lead to errors and confusion.)

An important application of this principle occurs when we are interested in the position of an object
at time t (say, on the x-axis) and we know its position at time t0. Let s(t) denote the position of the

32
object at time t (its distance from a reference point, such as the origin on the x-axis). Then the net
change in position between t0 and t is s(t)−s(t0).
Since s(t) is an anti-derivative of the velocity function v(t), we can write:

𝑡
𝑠(𝑡) = 𝑠(𝑡0) + ∫ 𝑣(𝑢)𝑑𝑢
𝑡0

Similarly, since the velocity is an anti-derivative of the acceleration function a(t), we have:
𝑡
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑣(𝑡0) + ∫ 𝑎(𝑢)𝑑𝑢
𝑡0

EXAMPLE 9.8
Suppose an object is acted upon by a constant force F. Find v(t) and s(t).

Solution:
By Newton’s law F = ma, so the acceleration is F/m, where m is the mass of the object. Then we first
have:

𝑡
𝐹
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑣(𝑡0) + ∫ 𝑑𝑢
𝑡0 𝑚

𝐹 𝑡
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑣𝑜 + 𝑢|
𝑚 𝑡0
𝐹
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑣0 + (𝑡 − 𝑡0)
𝑚

Using the usual convention v0 = v(t0). Then:

𝑡
𝐹
𝑠(𝑡) = 𝑠(𝑡0) + ∫ [𝑣0 + (𝑢 − 𝑡0)]𝑑𝑢
𝑡0 𝑚
𝑭
𝒔(𝒕) = 𝒔𝟎 + 𝒗𝟎(𝒕 − 𝒕𝟎) + (𝒕 − 𝒕𝟎)𝟐
𝟐𝒎
In the common case that t0 = 0, then:
𝑭 𝟐
𝒔(𝒕) = 𝒔𝟎 + 𝒗𝟎𝒕 + 𝒕
𝟐𝒎

EXAMPLE 9.9
The acceleration of an object is given by a(t) = cos(πt), and its velocity at time t = 0 is 1/(2π). Find
both the net and the total distance travelled in the first 1.5 seconds.

33
Solution:
We compute:
𝑡
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑣0 + ∫ cos(𝜋𝑢) 𝑑𝑢
0

1 1
= + sin (𝜋𝑢)|𝑡0
2𝜋 𝜋
1 1 1 1
= + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋𝑡 = ( + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋𝑡)
2𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 2
The net distance travelled is then:
3/2
1 1
𝑠(3/2) − 𝑠(𝑡0) = ∫ ( + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋𝑡)𝑑𝑡
0 2𝜋 𝜋
𝑡 3/2
= [ − cos (𝜋𝑡)]|0
2𝜋
3 1
= + 2
4𝜋 𝜋
≈ 0.340 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠

To find the total distance travelled, we need to know when [0.5 + sin(πt)] is positive and when it is
negative. This function is 0 when sin(πt) is −0.5, i.e., when πt = 7π/6, 11π/6, etc. The value πt =
7π/6, i.e., t = 7/6, is the only value in the range 0 ≤ t ≤ 1.5. Since v(t) > 0 for t < 7/6 and v(t) < 0
for t > 7/6, the total distance travelled is:

7/6 3/2
1 1 1 1
𝑠(𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙) = ∫ ( + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 + |∫ ( + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋𝑡)𝑑𝑡|
0 2𝜋 𝜋 7/6 2𝜋 𝜋

≈ 0.409 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠

9.4 WORK

In everyday life, work is a physical or mental activity that results in the completion of a certain task.
The technical meaning of work in physics involves the concept of force acting on an object and the
displacement of the object due to the force. Intuitively, force describes how an object is pushed or
pulled.
For example, if a 150 kg person seats on top of a vertical spring, we say a force of 150 kg is acting on
the top of a spring and the direction of the force is downward. Further, if the 150 kg force
compresses the spring by 2 m, we say that the work done is the product of the force and the amount
by which the spring is compressed. That is, if an object is moved in a straight line against a force F for
a distance s the work done is W = Fs. In above case, W = 150 x 2 = 300 Kg-m.

34
Other examples of work include a student lifting her book sack, a gardener pushing a lawn mower,
and a space shuttle lifting off for space. In reality few situations are very simple. However, the force
might not be constant over the range of motion, and then we need to take help from integral.

EXAMPLE 9.10
How much work is done in lifting a 10 pound weight from the surface of the earth to an orbit 100
miles above the surface?

Solution:
Over 100 miles the force due to gravity does change significantly, so we need to take this into
account. The force exerted on a 10 pound weight at a distance r from the center of the earth is F =
k/r2 and by definition it is 10 when r is the radius of the earth (we assume the earth is a sphere).
How can we approximate the work done? We divide the path from the surface to orbit into n small
subpaths. On each subpath the force due to gravity is roughly constant, with value k/r2i at distance ri.
The work to raise the object from ri to ri+1 is thus approximately k/r2 iΔr and the total work is
approximately:

𝑛−1
𝑘
∑ ∆𝑟
𝑟𝑖2
𝑖=0
𝑟1 𝑘
or in the limit, 𝑊= ∫𝑟𝑜 𝑟2 𝑑𝑟

where r0 is the radius of the earth and r1 is r0 plus 100 miles. The work is,
𝑟1
𝑘 𝑘 𝑟1 𝑘 𝑘
𝑊= ∫ 2
𝑑𝑟 = − | =− +
𝑟𝑜 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟0 𝑟 𝑟0

Using r0 = 20925525 feet we have r1 = 21453525. The force on the 10 pound weight at the surface
of the earth is 10 pounds, so 10 = k/209255252, giving k = 4378775965256250.
Then,
𝑘 𝑘 491052320000
− + = ≈ 5150052 𝑓𝑡 − 𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑠
𝑟 𝑟0 95349

Note that if we assume the force due to gravity is 10 pounds over the whole distance we would
calculate the work as 10.(r1−r0) = 10 · 100 · 5280 = 5280000, somewhat higher since we don’t
account for the weakening of the gravitational force.

EXAMPLE 9.11 (HOOKE’S LAW)

A force of 200 lb compresses a spring by a length of 0.5 ft from its natural length of 4 ft.
a) Find the spring constant.

35
b) Find the work needed to compress the spring from a length of 3.5 ft to a length of 3 ft.

Solution:
(a) Hooke’s Law states the force satisfies
f(x) = kx
where k is a positive constant called the spring constant and x is not too big to cause the spring to
break.
Now, we find that the spring constant k is,
k(0.5 ft) = 200 lb
k = 400 lb/ft.

(b) By Hooke’s Law, the force needed to compress the spring by a length of x feet from its natural
length is

f(x) = kx = 400x

Since, k = 400. As the spring compresses from a length of 3.5 ft to a length of 3 ft, we can think of
one end of the spring as moving along the x-axis from x = 0.5 to x = 1 while the other end of
the spring is held fixed. Then the work done is,

1 1
400𝑥 2
𝑊 = ∫ 400𝑥𝑑𝑥 = | = 150 𝑓𝑡 − 𝑙𝑏
0.5 2 0.5

EXAMPLE 9.12 (WINDING A CABLE)

A 20 ft cable weighing 3 lb/ft is hanging from a winch. Find the work done by the winch in winding
up all the cable.

Solution:
First we consider that the cable as an inverted vertical number line with the winch at the origin and
the lower end of the cable at y = 20, see Figure 1. Subdivide the
chain into smaller sections by partitioning [0, 20] into
subintervals [yi−1, yi] of equal width Δy.
Since the cable weighs 3 lb/ft, the weight of the section of the chain in
[yi−1, yi] is 3Δy lb. If Δy is small, yi is approximately yi−1, and
consequently the distance between the origin and the section
[yi−1, yi] is approximately yi. Then the work Wi needed to lift the
section of the chain in [yi−1, yi] to the winch is approximately.

36
 Wi = (force) (distance) ≈ (3Δy lb) (yi ft) = 3yiΔy ft-lb.

As the norm ‖∆‖ of the partition of [0, 20] approaches zero, we find that the total work needed to
lift the entire chain is given by,
𝑛 20
𝑊 = lim ∑ 3𝑦𝑖 ∆𝑦 = ∫ 3𝑦𝑑𝑦 = 600 𝑓𝑡 − 𝑙𝑏
∆𝑦→0 0
𝑖=1

EXAMPLE 9.13 (WORK DONE IN PUMPING WATER)

An inverted circular cone with a height 6 ft and base radius 2 ft is filled with water to a depth of 4 ft,
see Figure 9.13. Find the work needed to pump all the water to the top of the conical tank. The
density of water is 62.4 lb/ft3.

Figure 9.13: A conical water tank of height 6ft, base diameter 4ft, filled with water to a depth of 4ft.

Imagine inserting a vertical number line through the vertex of the cone with the origin at the top of
the conical tank. Since the water is 4 ft deep, the water marks on the number line will lie on the
interval [2, 6]. Subdivide [2, 6] into n subintervals [yi−1, yi] of equal
width Δy. The volume of water in the depth [yi−1, yi] can be
approximated by a circular disk Di of height Δy and radius ri. In
Figure 9.14, we see similar triangles and consequently.

𝑟𝑖 2
=
6 − 𝑦𝑖 6
2
𝑟𝑖 = (6 − 𝑦𝑖 )
6
Then the volume Vi of disk Di is,
𝜇
𝑉𝑖 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ∆𝑦 = (6 − 𝑦𝑖 )2 ∆𝑦
9
and using the density of water we find that the weight Fi of disk Di is,

37
 62.4𝜋
𝐹𝑖 = 62.4𝑉𝑖 = (6 − 𝑦𝑖 )2 ∆𝑦
9
Then the work Wi needed to pump disk Di to the top of the tank is approximately,
62.4𝜋
𝑊𝑖 ≈ (𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒)(𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒) = 𝐹𝑖 𝑦𝑖 = 𝑦𝑖 (6 − 𝑦𝑖 )2 ∆𝑦
9
Applying the limit process, we find that the total work needed to pump the water to the top of the
conical tank is,

9.5 MOMENTS AND CENTRES OF MASS

Suppose a beam is l meters long, and that there are two weights on the beam: a m1 kilogram weight
d1 meters from the fulcrum, another m2 kilogram weight d2 meters from the fulcrum end as in
figure 9.8. Where a fulcrum should be placed so that the beam balances? Let’s assign a scale to the
beam, from 0 at the left end to 10 at the right, so that we can denote locations on the beam simply
as x coordinates; the weights are at x = 3, x = 6, and x = 8, as in figure 9.15.

Figure 9.15: A beam with two masses.

Two masses m1 and m2 are attached to a rod of negligible mass on opposite sides of a fulcrum and at
distances d1 and d2 from the fulcrum. The rod will balance if 𝑚1 𝑑1=𝑚2 𝑑2.

Considering the following Figure 9.9, we can find out the position fulcrum.

38
 Figure 9.16

• suppose that the rod lies along the x-axis with m1 at x1 and m2 at x2 and the center of mass at
𝑥̅
• Compare with the previous figure,
𝑑1 = 𝑥̅ − 𝑥1 and 𝑑2 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥̅

• Thus,
𝑚1 (𝑥̅ − 𝑥1 ) = 𝑚2 (𝑥2 − 𝑥̅ )
𝑚1 𝑥̅ + 𝑚2 𝑥̅ = 𝑚1 𝑥1 + 𝑚2 𝑥2
𝑚1 𝑥1 + 𝑚2 𝑥2
𝑥̅ =
𝑚1 + 𝑚2

• In general, for a system with 𝑛 particles with the mass of each particle 𝑚1 , 𝑚2 … , 𝑚𝑛 located
at points 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 … , 𝑥𝑛 on the 𝑥-axis,
•
∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 𝑥𝑖
𝑥̅ =
∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖

• If we let 𝑚 = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 and the sum of individual moments 𝑀 = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 𝑥𝑖 , we obtain

𝑚𝑥̅ = 𝑀

We can consider another system, like Figure 9.17 below.

Figure 9.17

39
• consider a system of 𝑛 particles with masses 𝑚1 , 𝑚2 … , 𝑚𝑛 located at the points
(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ), (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ), … , (𝑥𝑛 , 𝑦𝑛 ) in the 𝑥𝑦-plane
• By analogy with the one-dimensional case, we define the moment of the system about the y-
axis to be,

𝑀𝑦 = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑥𝑖
𝑖=1

and the moment of the system about the x-axis as,

𝑛

𝑀𝑥 = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑦𝑖
𝑖=1

• the coordinates (𝑥̅ , 𝑦̅) of the center of mass are given in terms of the moments by the
formulas,

𝑀𝑦 𝑀𝑥
𝑥̅ = 𝑚
and 𝑦̅ = 𝑚

• the center of mass (𝑥̅ , 𝑦̅) is the point where a single particle of mass m would have the same
moments as the system

EXAMPLE 9.14
Find the moments and centre of mass of the system of objects that have masses 3, 4, and 8 at the
points (–1, 1), (2, –1), and (3, 2), respectively.

Figure 9.18

• Calculate the moments about 𝑥- and 𝑦-axes from the formula 𝑀𝑥 and 𝑀𝑦
𝑀𝑦 𝑀𝑥
• Calculate the coordinate for the centre of mass (𝑥̅ , 𝑦̅) from the formula 𝑥̅ = 𝑚
and 𝑦̅ = 𝑚

40
Solution:
The system of 3 particles with masses 3, 4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 8 located at the points (–1, 1), (2, –1), and (3, 2),
respectively, in the 𝑥𝑦-plane.
The moment of the system about the x-axis as,

𝑀𝑥 = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 𝑦𝑖 = (3x1+4x-1+8x2) = 15
The moment of the system about the y-axis to be,

𝑀𝑦 = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 𝑥𝑖 = (3x-1+ 4x2+8x3) = 29

𝑀𝑦 𝑀𝑥
The center of mass (𝑥̅ , 𝑦̅) from the formula 𝑥̅ = 𝑚
and 𝑦̅ = 𝑚

𝑀𝑦 29
𝑥̅ = = = 1.93
𝑚 (3 + 4 + 8)
𝑀𝑥 15
𝑦̅ = = = 1.0
𝑚 (3 + 4 + 8)
The center of mass (𝑥̅ , 𝑦̅) = (1.93, 1)

EXAMPLE 9.15 (CENTROID OF A LAMINA)

o What about the center of mass of a flat plate (lamina) that occupies the region ℛ on a plane?
o The center of mass of the plate is called the centroid of ℛ
o Use the symmetry principle: if ℛ is symmetric about a line
l, then the centroid of ℛ lies on l
o Example: what is the centroid of a rectangle?
o Next, define moments such that if the entire mass of a
region is concentrated at the center of mass, its moments
remain unchanged.
o Suppose that the region ℛ lies between the lines x = a and x = b,
above the x-axis, and beneath the graph of f, where f is a
continuous function
o divide the interval [a, b] into n subintervals with endpoints x0,
x1, . . . , xn and equal width x
o ̅̅̅̅ of the i th
choose the sample point xi* to be the midpoint 𝑥,
̅̅̅̅
subinterval, that is, 𝑥, = (𝑥𝑖−1 + 𝑥𝑖 )/2
1
o The centroid of the i th approximating rectangle Ri is its center 𝐶𝑖 (𝑥̅𝑖 , 2
𝑓(𝑥̅𝑖 )) . Its area is
𝑓(𝑥̅𝑖 )∆𝑥.
o The mass of the lamina is thus 𝜌𝑓(𝑥̅𝑖 )∆𝑥
• The moment of Ri about the y-axis is the product of its mass and the distance from Ci to the y-
axis, i.e. 𝑥̅𝑖 . Thus,

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 𝑀𝑦 (𝑅𝑖 ) = [𝜌𝑓(𝑥̅𝑖 )∆𝑥]𝑥̅𝑖 = 𝜌𝑥̅𝑖 𝑓(𝑥̅𝑖 )∆𝑥
• Adding these moments, we obtain the moment of the polygonal approximation to R
• By taking the limit as n → ∞, we obtain the moment of R about the y-axis,

𝑛 𝑏
𝑀𝑦 = lim ∑ 𝜌𝑥̅𝑖 𝑓(𝑥̅𝑖 )∆𝑥 = 𝜌 ∫ 𝑥𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑛→∞ 𝑎
𝑖=1

• Similarly, we compute the moment of Ri about the x-axis as the product of its mass and the
distance from Ci to the x-axis:

1 1
𝑀𝑥 (𝑅𝑖 ) = [𝜌𝑓(𝑥̅𝑖 )∆𝑥] 𝑓(𝑥̅𝑖 ) = 𝜌 ∙ [𝑓(𝑥̅𝑖 )]2 ∆𝑥
2 2
• Adding the moments and take the limit to obtain the moment of R about the x-axis:

𝑛 𝑏
1 1
𝑀𝑥 = lim ∑ 𝜌 ∙ [𝑓(𝑥̅𝑖 )]2 ∆𝑥 = 𝜌 ∫ [𝑓(𝑥)]2 𝑑𝑥
𝑛→∞ 2 𝑎 2
𝑖=1

Recall the center of mass for a system of particles:

𝑀𝑦 𝑀𝑥
𝑥̅ = 𝑚
and 𝑦̅ = 𝑚

For a plate, the mass is

𝑏
𝑚 = 𝜌𝐴 = 𝜌 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎

Thus,

𝑏 𝑏
𝑀𝑦 𝜌 ∫𝑎 𝑥𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 ∫𝑎 𝑥𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 1 𝑏
𝑥̅ = = 𝑏
= 𝑏 = ∫ 𝑥𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑚 𝜌 ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 𝐴 𝑎

𝑏1 2 𝑏1 2
𝑀𝑥 𝜌 ∫𝑎 2 [𝑓(𝑥)] 𝑑𝑥 ∫𝑎 2 [𝑓(𝑥)] 𝑑𝑥 1 𝑏 1
𝑦̅ = = 𝑏
= 𝑏
= ∫ [𝑓(𝑥)]2 𝑑𝑥
𝑚 𝜌 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 𝐴 𝑎 2
𝑎 𝑎

9.6 ARC LENGTH

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Let consider the following arc,

Figure 9.19

We want to determine the length of the continuous function y=f(x) on the interval [a,b]. We’ll also
need to assume that the derivative is continuous on [a, b].
Initially we’ll need to estimate the length of the curve. We’ll do this by dividing the interval up
into n equal subintervals each of width Δx and we’ll denote the point on the curve at each point
by Pi. We can then approximate the curve by a series of straight lines connecting the points.

Now denote the length of each of these line segments by |Pi−1, Pi| and the length of the curve will
then be approximately,

𝐿 ≈ ∑|𝑃𝑖−1 − 𝑃𝑖 |
𝑖=1

And we can get the exact length by taking n larger and larger, towards infinity. In other words, the
exact length will be,

𝐿 = lim ∑|𝑃𝑖−1 − 𝑃𝑖 |
𝑛→∝
𝑖=1

Now, let’s get a better grasp on the length of each of these line segments. First, on each segment
let’s define,

We can then compute directly the length of the line segments as follows:

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 1
|𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃𝑖−1 | = (√1 + (𝑓′(𝑥 ∗))2 ) 𝜟𝑥 𝑜𝑟, = (√1 + ( )2 )𝜟𝑦
𝑓′(𝑥 ∗)

The exact length of the curve is then,

However, using the definition of the definite integral, this is nothing more than,

A slightly more convenient notation (in our opinion anyway) is the following.

In a similar fashion we can also derive a formula for x=h(y) on [c, d]. This formula is,

EXAMPLE 9.16
𝑥3 1
Find the length of the arc, 𝑦 = 3
+ 4𝑥 , 1 ≪ 𝑥 ≪ 2 as shown in Figure 9.13

Figure: 9.20

Solution:

44
The derivative is,

We calculate a perfect square as follows:

Then we obtain,

EXAMPLE 9.17
𝑥2
Find the arc length of 𝑓(𝑥) = 8
− 𝑙𝑛𝑥, 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑒 as shown in Figure 9.14

Figure 9.21

Solution:
The derivative is,

45
The integrand of the arc length integral is given by,

Then we find,

9.7 THE AREA OF A SURFACE OF REVOLUTIO N

Let C be a right circular cone with a base radius of r and slant height h,
see Figure 9.21. If we slice open the cone at its vertex along a slant
height and lay it on a plane, we obtain a sector of a circle of radius h and
an intercepted arc of length 2πr. Then the central angle θ of the sector
satisfies:

ℎ𝜃 = 2𝜋𝑟

Consequently, the area of the sector (or equivalently the surface area of
C) is,
𝜃
(𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑒) = ℎ2 = 𝜋𝑟ℎ (9.4)
2

Next, consider a frustum of a cone with radii r2 > r1 and slant height l, see
Figure 9.22. Using similar right triangles, as shown in Figure 9.23,
where,

l = l2 − l1

We get,

46
 𝑙2 𝑙1
=
𝑟2 𝑟1
Note, the surface area of a frustum is the difference of the surface areas of two cones. Applying
formula (9.4), we obtain,

EXAMPLE 9.18
Compute the surface area of a sphere of radius r. The sphere can be obtained by rotating the graph
of 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑟 2 − 𝑥 2 about the x-axis.

Solution:

The derivative f′ is −𝑥/√𝑟 2 − 𝑥 2 , so the surface area is given by,

If the curve is rotated around the y axis, the formula is nearly identical, because the length of the
line segment we use to approximate a portion of the curve doesn’t change. Instead of the
radius𝑓(𝑥̇ 𝑖∗ ), we use the new radius 𝑥̅𝑖 = (𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥𝑖+1 )/2, and the surface area integral becomes,

EXAMPLE 9.19
Compute the area of the surface formed when f(x) = x2 between 0 and 2 is rotated around the y-axis.

Solution:

47
We compute f′(x) = 2x, and then,

by a simple substitution.

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