Lecture 5:

Structure and Mechanical

Properties of Metals
(Part I – Basic Concepts)
By:
Assoc. Prof. Ir. Dr. Wong Yew Hoong
Department of Mechanical Engineering | Faculty of Engineering
Universiti Malaya| Kuala Lumpur | Malaysia

1
 Introduction
• Materials are subjected to external loads during the service.

• Different materials behave differently to a given external load.

• The knowledge of material properties is required so that excessive

deformation or fracture does not occur.

• Materials properties can be obtained from suitable experiments.

2
 Concept of Stress
Definition

A measure of the average amount of force exerted per unit area of a surface
within a deformable body.

• Normal stress: force perpendicular to the surface

• Shear stress: force parallel to the surface
• Engineering stress: force per unit area of initial surface
• True stress: force per unit area of current surface

3
Concept of Stress

4
Concept of Stress

5
 Common Stress State

Simple tension: cable

F F
A o = initial cross sectional
area (when unloaded)

F
s= s s
Ao
6
 Common Stress State
Simple compression

Ao

Canyon Bridge, Los Alamos, NM

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

F Note: compressive
Balanced Rock, Arches s= structure member
National Park
(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
Ao (s < 0 here).
7
 Common Stress State
• Bi-axial tension: • Hydrostatic compression:

Pressurized tank Fish under water (photo courtesy

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
P.M. Anderson) s >0
q

sz > 0 sh< 0
8
Common Stress State

9
Activity 1

10
 Concept of Strain
Definition

A measure of the shape change in materials due to external loads. It relates the
geometry of materials after and before loading.

› Normal strain: due to normal stress

› Shear strain: due to shear stress

11
Concept of Strain

12
Concept of Strain

13
Activity 2

14
Activity 3

15
You may now understand
the basic concepts of
stress and strain.

How do these concepts

be measured?

16
Through tensile test by using
Universal Testing Machine (UTM)

17
 Tensile Test
Objective:
Evaluate the mechanical properties of materials.
Strength of materials can be tested by pulling the metal to failure.

Load Cell

extensometer specimen

Specimen

Force data is obtained from Load cell.

Strain data is obtained from Extensometer. 18
Tensile Test

19
 Tensile Test

gauge
length

Rectangular tension
test specimen

Round tension
test specimen

Typical stress-strain curve 20

How to interpret the
data collected from
UTM?

21
Prior to interpreting the obtained
data from UTM, some concepts must
be understood first.

22
Tensile Test

23
 Elastic and Plastic Deformations
Elastic deformation
• Non-permanent, i.e. material returns to its initial shape after the removal of
load.
• Corresponds to the stretching of interatomic bonds, thus involving only small
changes in the interatomic spacing.

Plastic deformation
• Permanent, i.e. material does not returns to its initial shape after the removal
of load.
• Corresponds to the breaking of interatomic bonds, followed by reforming
bonds with new neighbors.
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 Elastic Deformations
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload

bonds F Linear-
stretch elastic

return to Non-Linear-
elastic
initial d
d
F Elastic means reversible!

25
 Plastic Deformations
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
bonds
stretch planes F
& planes still
shear sheared
linear linear
elastic elastic
d
dplastic dplastic
delastic + plastic

Plastic means permanent!

F

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Elastic and Plastic Deformations

27
Typical Stress-Strain Curve – Mechanical Properties

M= ultimate strength

F = fracture strength
Yield
strength

Neck – acts
as stress concentrator

28
Mechanical Properties – Modulus of Elasticity (E)

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Mechanical Properties – Modulus of Elasticity (E)
Elastic to Plastic Deformation Bahaviour

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Mechanical Properties – Modulus of Elasticity (E)
F
Δσ
Plastic Stress E=
Δε
Δσ
elastic
dp d Δε

Strain
de
• Higher the bonding strength, higher is the modulus of
elasticity.

• Examples: Modulus of Elasticity of Steel is 207 GPa.

Modulus of Elasticity of Aluminum is 76 GPa.

• E ↑  Strength ↑  Brittle ↑
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Mechanical Properties – Modulus of Elasticity (E)

32
Mechanical Properties – Modulus of Elasticity (E)
Metals Graphite Composites
Ceramics Polymers /fibers
Alloys
Semicond
1200
10 00 Diamond
800
600
Si carbide
400 Tungsten Al oxide Carbon fibers only
Molybdenum Si nitride
Steel, Ni C FRE(|| fibers)*
200 Tantalum <111>
Platinum Si crystal
E(GPa) 10 0
Cu alloys
Zinc, Ti
<100> Aramid fibers only

80 Silver, Gold
Glass -soda A FRE(|| fibers)*
Aluminum Glass fibers only
60
Magnesium,
40 Tin G FRE(|| fibers)* Based on data in Table B2,
Concrete Callister 7e.
GFRE* Composite data based on
20
109 Pa 10
G raphite
CFRE *
G FRE( fibers)*
reinforced epoxy with 60 vol%
of aligned
8
6
C FRE( fibers) * carbon (CFRE),
AFRE( fibers) *
4
Polyester aramid (AFRE), or
PET glass (GFRE)
PS
2 PC Epoxy only fibers.
PP
1 HDP E
0.8
0.6 Wood( grain)
PTF E
0.4
33
0.2 LDPE
Mechanical Properties – Yield Strength (σy)

34
 Mechanical Properties – Yield Strength (σy)

Definition:

Stress at which noticeable plastic deformation

(yielding) has occurred, normally at plastic
deformation = 0.2%. Sometimes, it is called 0.2%
offset yield strength.

 Construction line – starting at 0.2% strain and

parallel to elastic region is drawn to find 0.2% offset
yield strength.
35
Mechanical Properties – Yield Strength (σy)
• Stress at which noticeable plastic deformation has
occurred.
when ep = 0.002
tensile stress, s
sy = yield strength
sy

engineering strain, e
ep = 0.002 Adapted from Fig. 6.10 (a),
Callister 7e. 36
Mechanical Properties – Yield Strength (σy)
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
20 00

since in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

Steel (4140) qt

in ceramic matrix and epoxy matrix composites, since

in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.
10 00

Yield strength, s y (MPa)

Ti (5Al-2.5Sn) a
W (pure)
700
600 Cu (71500) cw
500 Mo (pure)
Steel (4140) a
400
Steel (1020) cd
300

Hard to measure ,

Hard to measure,
Al (6061) ag
Steel (1020) hr
200
Ti (pure) a
¨ Room T values
Ta (pure)
Cu (71500) hr

100
dry
70 PC
60 Al (6061) a Nylon 6,6
50 PET
humid
40 PVC
PP
30 H DPE

20

LDPE 37
Tin (pure)
10
Mechanical Properties – Tensile Strength (σTS)

38
 Mechanical Properties – Tensile Strength (σTS)

Definition: Al 2024-Tempered

Maximum strength reached by the engineering stress

Stress (MPa)
strain curve. Necking starts after TS is reached. Necking Point

Al 2024-Annealed

• More ductile the metal is, more is the necking before

Strain
failure. Stress strain curves of
Al 2024 With two different
• Stress increases till failure. Drop in stress strain curve is heat treatments. Ductile
annealed sample necks more.
due to stress calculation based on original area. 39
Mechanical Properties – Tensile Strength (σTS)
Adapted from Fig. 6.11,
Callister 7e.
TS
M= ultimate a.k.a. Ultimate tensile
sy strength (UTS)
engineering strength
stress
F = fracture
strength
Typical response of a metal
Neck – acts
as stress
strain concentrator
engineering strain
• Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts.
• Polymers: occurs when polymer backbone chains are
aligned and about to break. 40
Necking

41
Necking

42
Mechanical Properties – Tensile Strength (σTS)
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
5000 C fibers
Aramid fib
3000 E-glass fib

Tensile strength, TS (MPa)

2000 Steel (4140) qt
AFRE(|| fiber)
1000 W (pure) Diamond GFRE(|| fiber)
Ti (5Al-2.5Sn)aa CFRE(|| fiber)
Steel (4140)cw
Cu (71500) Si nitride
Cu (71500) hr
Steel (1020) Al oxide
300 Al (6061) ag
Ti (pure) a
200 Ta (pure) Room Temp. values
Al (6061) a
100 Si crystal wood(|| fiber)
<100> Nylon 6,6
Glass-soda PC PET
40 PVC GFRE( fiber)
Concrete PP
30 CFRE( fiber)
AFRE( fiber)
HDPE
20 Graphite
LDPE

10

wood ( fiber)

43
1
Mechanical Properties

45
Mechanical Properties

46
 Mechanical Properties – Poisons Ratio (v)

Definition:

Ratio between lateral and axial strains of materials

e (lateral ) ey ex
 = = or
e (longitudinal) e z e z

47
 Mechanical Properties – Poisons Ratio (v)
e (lateral ) ey ex
 = = or
.
e (longitudinal ) e z e z

metals:  ~ 0.33
ceramics:  ~ 0.25
0 w0 w
 polymers:  ~ 0.40

Usually poisons ratio ranges from

0.25 to 0.4.

Example: Stainless steel 0.28

Copper 0.33

48
Mechanical Properties – Shear Modulus (G)

Isotropic: Properties of a material are identical in all directions.

49
Mechanical Properties

50
 Activity 4
A tensile stress is to be applied along the long axis of a cylindrical brass rod
having a diameter of 10 mm. Determine the magnitude of the load required to
produce a 2.5 x 10-3 mm reduction in diameter if the deformation is entirely
elastic. The modulus elasticity of brass is 100 GPa, Poisson’s ratio is 0.35.

51
Recap from the last lecture…
• Stress and strain: These are size-independent
measures of load and displacement,
respectively.

• Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior

often shows a linear relation between stress
and strain. To minimize deformation, select a
material with a large elastic modulus (E or G).

• Plastic behavior: This permanent

deformation behavior occurs when the
tensile (or compressive) uniaxial stress
reaches σy.

52
Mechanical Properties

53
 Mechanical Properties – Poisons Ratio (v)

Definition:

Ratio between lateral and axial strains of materials

e (lateral ) ey ex
 = = or
e (longitudinal) e z e z

54
 Mechanical Properties – Poisons Ratio (v)
e (lateral ) ey ex
 = = or
.
e (longitudinal ) e z e z

metals:  ~ 0.33
ceramics:  ~ 0.25
0 w0 w
 polymers:  ~ 0.40

Usually poisons ratio ranges from

0.25 to 0.4.

Example: Stainless steel 0.28

Copper 0.33

55
Mechanical Properties

56
 Recap Activity 4
A tensile stress is to be applied along the long axis of a cylindrical brass rod
having a diameter of 10 mm. Determine the magnitude of the load required to
produce a 2.5 x 10-3 mm reduction in diameter if the deformation is entirely
elastic. The modulus elasticity of brass is 100 GPa, Poisson’s ratio is 0.35.

57
 Activity 1
From the tensile stress–strain behavior for the brass
specimen shown below, determine the following:

a. The modulus of elasticity.

b. The yield strength at a strain offset of 0.002.
c. The maximum load that can be sustained by a
cylindrical specimen having an original diameter
of 12.8 mm.
d. The change in length of a specimen originally 250
mm long that is subjected to a tensile stress of
345 MPa.

58
 Ductility
Definition:
Measure of material’s ability to be deformed plastically without
fracture.

Normally, it is measured by elongation or area reduction.

59
 Ductility – Percent Elongation
• Percent elongation is a measure of ductility of a material.
• It is the elongation of the metal before fracture, expressed as percentage of
original length.

Final Length − Initial Length

% Elongation = × 100%
Initial Length

• Measured using a caliper fitting the fractured metal together.

• Example: Percent elongation for pure aluminum is 35%;
Percent elongation for 7076-T6 aluminum alloy is 11%.

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Ductility – Percent Elongation

61
 Ductility – Percent Area Reduction
• Percent area reduction is also a measure of ductility.
• The diameter of fractured end of specimen is measured using caliper.
• Percent reduction in area in metals decreases in case of presence of porosity.

Initial Area − Final Area

% Area Reduction = × 100%
Initial Area

62
Ductility – Percent Area Reduction

63
Ductility

64
Ductility

65
Activity 2

66
 Resilience (Ur)
Definition:
Ability of a material to store energy when it is deformed elastically and then,
upon unloading, to have this energy recovered. . In other word, simply the
maximum energy per unit volume that can be elastically stored.

Assuming linear
elastic behavior from
stress-strain curve
𝜀𝑦
𝑈𝑟 = න 𝜎𝑑𝜀
0

67
 Toughness (KIC)
Definition:
Capacity of a material to absorb energy up to fracture. In other word, it is simply the
energy per unit volume required to break the material. Approximate by the area under
the stress-strain curve.
Brittle fracture: elastic energy
Ductile fracture: elastic + plastic energy
Engineering small toughness (ceramics)
tensile large toughness (metals)
stress, s
Adapted from Fig. 6.13, very small toughness
Callister 7e. (unreinforced polymers)

Engineering tensile strain, e 68

Toughness (KIC)

69
Toughness (KIC)

70
 Toughness and Impact Testing
• Toughness is a measure of energy
absorbed before failure.

• Impact test measures the ability of

metal to absorb impact.

• Toughness is measured using impact

testing machine.

71
 Activity 3
For the given engineering stress-strain
diagram, please find the modulus of resilience
(Ur) and the toughness (KIC) of the material.

72
 Activity 4

The mechanical properties of certain materials are listed in the above table.
1. Which material will experience the greatest percent area reduction? Why?
2. Which material is the strongest? Why?
3. Which is the stiffest? Why?
73
 True Stress and True Strain
• Engineering stress increases up to point
M, then decreases.
• The decline corresponds to a reduction
of load-bearing capacity due to rapid
decrease of cross-sectional area
(necking).
• It does not indicate that the material is
weaker.
• Engineering stress does not take into
account the diminution in cross sectional
area.

74
 True Stress and True Strain
True stress and true strain are based upon instantaneous cross-sectional area and length.

75
True Stress and True Strain

76
 True Stress and True Strain

• True stress is greater than engineering stress.

• True stress continues to rise past the tensile point M’.

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 Safety Factor in Design
• There exists uncertainties in characterizing the magnitude of external loads.
• The calculated stress levels in the material are only approximate.
• Design allowances must be made to protect against unanticipated failure
(yielding).

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 Activity 5
A tensile-testing apparatus to be constructed that must withstand a maximum load of 220 kN.
The design calls for two cylindrical support posts, each of which is to support half of the
maximum load. A carbon steel are to be used. It has a yield and tensile strengths of 310 MPa
and 565 MPa respectively. Specify a suitable diameter for these support posts. Use SF=5 for this
design.

79
 Hardness and Hardness Testing
Definition:
Measure of a materials resistance to localized plastic deformation, e.g. a small dent or a scratch.
Qualitative approach
• Using Mohs scale which range from 1 (talc) to 10 (diamond).
• Mohs hardness is a measure of the relative hardness and resistance to scratching between
minerals.
Quantitative approach
• Forcing small indenter into the specimen surface and the resulting indentation is measured.
• Rockwell hardness test
• Brinell hardness test
• Vickers microhardness test
• Knoop microhardness test
80
Hardness and Hardness Testing

81
Hardness and Hardness Testing
• Large hardness means:
-resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in compression.
-better wear properties.

apply known force measure size

e.g., of indent after
10 mm sphere removing load

Smaller indents
D d mean larger
hardness.

most brasses easy to machine cutting nitrided

plastics Al alloys steels file hard tools steels diamond

increasing hardness
82
Hardness and Hardness Testing

83
Comparison of Different Hardness Scales

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Summary
• Toughness: The energy needed to break a
unit volume of material.

• Ductility: The plastic strain at failure.

• Hardness: Measure of a materials

resistance to localized plastic deformation,
e.g. a small dent or a scratch.

85