Materials Science

Review of Mechanical properties of Materials

Easeng SIV

Institute of Technology of Cambodia

Department of Industrial and Mechanical Eng.
Russian Federation Blvd, P.O. Box. 86, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
Tensile specimen

E. SIV

E. SIV
E. SIV

E. SIV

E. SIV
E. SIV

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 Outline

 Terminology for Mechanical Properties

 The Tensile Test: Stress-Strain Diagram
 Properties Obtained from a Tensile Test
 True Stress and True Strain
 Shear stress diagram

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Stress-Strain Test

specimen

machine

4
Tensile Test

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 Important Mechanical Properties
from a Tensile Test
 Young's Modulus: This is the slope of the linear
portion of the stress-strain curve, it is usually
specific to each material; a constant, known value.

 Yield Strength: This is the value of stress at the

yield point, calculated by plotting young's modulus
at a specified percent of offset (usually offset =
0.2%).

 Ultimate Tensile Strength: This is the highest

value of stress on the stress-strain curve.

 Percent Elongation: This is the change in gauge

length divided by the original gauge length. 6
 Terminology

 Load - The force applied to a material during

testing.
 Strain gage or Extensometer - A device used for
measuring change in length (strain).
 Engineering stress - The applied load, or force,
divided by the original cross-sectional area of the
material.
 Engineering strain - The amount that a material
deforms per unit length in a tensile test.

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 Elastic Deformation
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload

bonds
stretch

return to
initial

F

Elastic means reversible.

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 Plastic Deformation (Metals)
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload

linear linear
elastic elastic

Plastic means permanent. plastic 9
 Yield Strength

Typical stress-strain behavior

for a metal showing elastic
and plastic deformations, the
proportional limit P and the
yield strength σy, as
determined using the 0.002
strain offset method (where
there is noticeable plastic
deformation). P is the gradual
elastic to plastic transition.

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 Plastic Deformation (permanent)

 From an atomic perspective, plastic deformation

corresponds to the breaking of bonds with
original atom neighbors and then reforming
bonds with new neighbors.
 After removal of the stress, the large number of
atoms that have relocated, do not return to
original position.
 Yield strength is a measure of resistance to
plastic deformation.

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 Plastic Deformation (permanent)

(c)2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein under license.

• Localized deformation of a ductile material during a tensile

test produces a necked region.
• The image shows necked region in a fractured sample
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 Permanent Deformation
 Permanent deformation for metals is accomplished by
means of a process called slip, which involves the motion
of dislocations.

 Most structures are designed to ensure that only elastic

deformation results when stress is applied.

 A structure that has plastically deformed, or experienced a

permanent change in shape, may not be capable of
functioning as intended.

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Yield Strength, 𝝈𝒚

tensile stress, 
y

engineering strain, 
p = 0.002 14
Stress-Strain Diagram

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 Stress-Strain Diagram (cont)
• Elastic Region (Point 1 –2)
- The material will return to its original shape after the
material is unloaded( like a rubber band).
- The stress is linearly proportional to the strain in this
region. σ
σ Eε or E
ε
σ : Stress(psi)
E : Elastic modulus (Young’s Modulus) (psi)
ε : Strain (in/in)

- Point 2 : Yield Strength : a point where permanent

deformation occurs. ( If it is passed, the material will no
longer return to its original length.)
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 Stress-Strain Diagram (cont)

• Strain Hardening
- If the material is loaded again from Point 4, the curve will
follow back to Point 3 with the same Elastic Modulus (slope).

- The material now has a higher yield strength of Point 4.

- Raising the yield strength by permanently straining the

material is called Strain Hardening.

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 Stress-Strain Diagram (cont)

• Tensile Strength (Point 3)

- The largest value of stress on the diagram is called
Tensile Strength(TS) or Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS)
- It is the maximum stress which the material can support
without breaking.

• Fracture (Point 5)
- If the material is stretched beyond Point 3, the stress
decreases as necking and non-uniform deformation occur.
- Fracture will finally occur at Point 5.

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The stress-strain curve for an aluminum
alloy.

(c)2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein under license.

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Tensile Strength, TS

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Thermoplastic polymer tensile sample

In an undeformed thermoplastic
polymer tensile sample,
(a) the polymer chains are
randomly oriented.
(b) When a stress is applied, a
neck develops as chains
become aligned locally. The
neck continues to grow until
the chains in the entire gage
length have aligned.
(c) The strength of the polymer
is increased

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Stress-Strain curved of Thermoplastic
polymer

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 Engineering Stress
• Tensile stress, : • Shear stress, t:

Ft

Ao
original area
before loading Stress has units: N/m2 or lb/in2

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 VMSE

http://www.wiley.com/college/callister/0470125373/vmse/index.htm

http://www.wiley.com/college/callister/0470125373/vmse/strstr.htm

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 Example 1
Tensile Testing of Aluminum Alloy
Convert the change in length data in the table to engineering
stress and strain and plot a stress-strain curve.

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Example 1 SOLUTION

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 Ductility, %EL
Ductility is a measure of the plastic l f  lo
deformation that has been sustained % EL  x100
at fracture: lo

A material that
suffers very
little plastic
deformation is Ao  A f
brittle.
• Another ductility measure:
% AR  x100
Ao
• Ductility may be expressed as either percent elongation (% plastic strain at
fracture) or percent reduction in area.
• %AR > %EL is possible if internal voids form in neck.

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 Toughness
Toughness is the Lower toughness: ceramics
ability to absorb Higher toughness: metals
energy up to fracture
(energy per unit
volume of material).

A “tough” material has

strength and ductility.

Approximated by the
area under the stress-
strain
curve.

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 Toughness
• Energy to break a unit volume of material
• Approximate by the area under the stress-strain
curve.

Engineering smaller toughness (ceramics)

tensile larger toughness
stress,  (metals, PMCs)

smaller toughness-
unreinforced
polymers

Engineering tensile strain, 

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 Linear Elastic Properties
• Hooke's Law: =E

• Poisson's ratio: n  x/y

metals: n ~ 0.33
ceramics: n ~0.25
polymers: n ~0.40

Modulus of Elasticity, E:
(Young's modulus)

Units:
E: [GPa] or [psi]
n: dimensionless

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Engineering Strain

Strain is dimensionless.

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 Engineering Strain

Axial (z) elongation (positive

strain) and lateral (x and y)
contractions (negative strains)
in response to an imposed
tensile stress.

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 True Stress and True Strain
 True stress The load divided by the actual cross-sectional
area of the specimen at that load.
 True strain The strain calculated using actual and not
original dimensions, given by εt ln(l/l0).
•The relation between the true stress-
true strain diagram and engineering
stress-engineering strain diagram.
•The curves are identical to the yield
point.

∆𝑙 𝑙𝑖
=ln(1+ ) = ln( )
𝑙0 𝑙0

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Stress-Strain Results for Steel Sample

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 Example 2: Young’s Modulus - Aluminum Alloy
From the data in Example 1, calculate the modulus of
elasticity of the aluminum alloy.

𝐹 ∆𝑙
𝜎= 𝜀= 𝜎 = 𝐸𝜀
𝐴 𝑙0

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Example 2: Young’s Modulus - Aluminum
Alloy - continued
 Use the modulus to determine the length after
deformation of a bar of initial length of 50 in.
 Assume that a level of stress of 30,000 psi is applied.

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 Young’s Moduli: Comparison
Graphite
Metals Composites
Ceramics Polymers
Alloys /fibers
Semicond
1200
1000 Diamond
800
600
Si carbide
400 Tungsten Al oxide Carbon fibers only
Molybdenum Si nitride
Steel, Ni CFRE(|| fibers)*
200 Tantalum <111>
Platinum Si crystal
Cu alloys <100> Aramid fibers only
100 Zinc, Ti
80 Silver, Gold Glass-soda AFRE(|| fibers)*
60 Aluminum Glass fibers only
Magnesium, GFRE(|| fibers)*
40 Tin
E(GPa) Concrete
GFRE*
20 Composite data based on
CFRE*
Graphite GFRE( fibers)* reinforced epoxy with 60 vol%
10
8 CFRE( fibers)* of aligned carbon (CFRE),
6 AFRE( fibers)* aramid (AFRE), or glass (GFRE)
109 Pa
Polyester
4 PET fibers.
PS
PC Epoxy only
2
PP
1 HDPE
0.8
0.6 Wood( grain)
PTFE
0.4

0.2 LDPE
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Example 3: True Stress and True Strain Calculation

Compare engineering stress and strain with true stress and

strain for the aluminum alloy in Example 1 at (a) the maximum
load. The diameter at maximum load is 0.497 in. and at
fracture is 0.398 in.
Example 3 SOLUTION

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 THE SHEAR STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM

Like the tension test, this material when subjected to shear

will exhibit linear-elastic behavior and it will have a defined
proportional limit tpl. Also, strain hardening will occur until an
ultimate shear stress tu is reached. And finally, the material
will begin to lose its shear strength until it reaches a point
where it fractures, tf.
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 THE SHEAR STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM
For most engineering materials,
like the one just described, the
elastic behavior is linear, and so
Hooke's law for shear can be
written as
t=G
Here G is called the shear modulus of
elasticity or the modulus of rigidity.

Furthermore, the three material constants, E, n and G are

actually related by the equation
E
G
21  n 
Provided E and G are known, the value of n can be determined from this equation
rather than through experimental measurement.
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 Problem 6.3
A specimen of aluminum having a rectangular cross section 10 mm x 12.7 mm (0.4
in. x 0.5 in.) is pulled in tension with 35,500 N (8000 lbf) force, producing only
elastic deformation. Calculate the resulting strain.

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 Problem 6.7

For a bronze alloy, the stress at which plastic deformation

begins is 275 MPa (40,000 psi), and the modulus of elasticity
is 115 GPa (16.7 x 106 psi).
(a) What is the maximum load that may be applied to a
specimen with a cross-sectional area of 325 mm2(0.5 in.2)
without plastic deformation?
(b) If the original specimen length is 115 mm (4.5 in.), what is
the maximum length to which it may be stretched without
causing plastic deformation?

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 Problem 6.8

A cylindrical rod of copper (E = 110 GPa) having a yield strength

of 240 MPa is to be subjected to a load of 6660 N. If the length
of the rod is 380 mm, what must be the diameter to allow an
elongation of 0.50 mm?

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 Problem 6.15

A cylindrical specimen of aluminum having a diameter of 19

mm (0.75 in.) and length of 200 mm (8.0 in.) is deformed
elastically in tension with a force of 48,800 N (11,000 lbf). Using
the data contained in Table 6.1,
determine the following:
(a) The amount by which this specimen will elongate in the
direction of the applied stress.
(b) The change in diameter of the specimen. Will the diameter
increase or decrease?

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 Problem 6.23

A cylindrical rod 100 mm long and having a diameter of 10.0

mm is to be deformed using a tensile load of 27500 N. It must
not experience either plastic deformation or a diameter
reduction of more than 7.5 x 10-3 mm. Of the materials listed
as follows, which are possible candidates? Justify your
choice(s).

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 Problem 6.29

A cylindrical specimen of aluminum having a diameter of 0.505

in. (12.8 mm) and a gauge length of 2.000 in. (50.800 mm) is
pulled in tension. Use the load–elongation characteristics
tabulated below to complete parts (a) through (f).
Data : slide 47

(a) Plot the data as engineering stress versus engineering

strain.
(b) Compute the modulus of elasticity.
(c) Determine the yield strength at a strain offset of 0.002.
(d) Determine the tensile strength of this alloy.
(e) What is the approximate ductility, in percent elongation?
(f) Compute the modulus of resilience.
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Problem 6.29

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