Chapter 2:

MECHANICAL
PROPERTIES
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 Chapter Outline

 Terminology for Mechanical Properties

 The Tensile Test: Stress-Strain Diagram
 Properties Obtained from a Tensile Test
 True Stress and True Strain
 The Bend Test for Brittle Materials
 Hardness of Materials
 Questions to Think About
• Stress and strain: What are they and why are they
used instead of load and deformation?
• Elastic behavior: When loads are small, how much
deformation occurs? What materials deform least?
• Plastic behavior: At what point do dislocations
cause permanent deformation? What materials are
most resistant to permanent deformation?
• Toughness and ductility: What are they and how
do we measure them?
• Ceramic Materials: What special provisions/tests
are made for ceramic materials?
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Stress-Strain Test

specimen

machine
4
Tensile Test

5
 Important Mechanical Properties
from a Tensile Test
• Young's Modulus: This is the slope of the linear
portion of the stress-strain curve, it is usually
specific to each material; a constant, known value.
• Yield Strength: This is the value of stress at the
yield point, calculated by plotting young's modulus
at a specified percent of offset (usually offset =
0.2%).
• Ultimate Tensile Strength: This is the highest
value of stress on the stress-strain curve.
• Percent Elongation: This is the change in gauge
length divided by the original gauge length.

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 Terminology
 Load - The force applied to a material during
testing.
 Strain gage or Extensometer - A device used for
measuring change in length (strain).
 Engineering stress - The applied load, or force,
divided by the original cross-sectional area of the
material.
 Engineering strain - The amount that a material
deforms per unit length in a tensile test.
 Elastic Deformation
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload

bonds
stretch

return to
initial

F F Linear-
elastic
Non-Linear-
Elastic means reversible. elastic

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 Plastic Deformation (Metals)
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
bonds
stretch planes
& planes still
shear sheared

elastic + plastic plastic

F
F
linear linear
Plastic means permanent. elastic elastic

plastic 9
Typical stress-strain
behavior for a metal
showing elastic and
plastic deformations,
the proportional limit P
and the yield strength
σy, as determined
using the 0.002 strain
offset method (where there
is noticeable plastic deformation).
P is the gradual elastic
to plastic transition.
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 Plastic Deformation (permanent)
• From an atomic perspective, plastic
deformation corresponds to the breaking of
bonds with original atom neighbors and
then reforming bonds with new neighbors.
• After removal of the stress, the large
number of atoms that have relocated, do
not return to original position.
• Yield strength is a measure of resistance
to plastic deformation.
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 (c)2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein under license.

• Localized deformation of a ductile material during a

tensile test produces a necked region.
• The image shows necked region in a fractured sample
 Permanent Deformation
• Permanent deformation for metals is
accomplished by means of a process called
slip, which involves the motion of
dislocations.
• Most structures are designed to ensure that
only elastic deformation results when stress
is applied.
• A structure that has plastically deformed, or
experienced a permanent change in shape,
may not be capable of functioning as
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intended.
 Yield Strength, y

Elastic+Plastic
tensile stress, 
tensile stress,  at larger stress
y
Elastic
initially
permanent (plastic)
after load is removed

p engineering strain, 

plastic strain
engineering strain, 
p = 0.002

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 Stress-Strain Diagram
ultimate
tensile
strength 3 necking
 UTS
Strain
yield Fracture
strength Hardening
y 5
2
Elastic region
Plastic slope =Young’s (elastic) modulus
Region yield strength
Plastic region
ultimate tensile strength
Elastic strain hardening
σ Eε Region fracture
4
σ 1
E σy
ε E Strain (  ) (DL/Lo)
ε 2  ε1
 Stress-Strain Diagram (cont)
• Elastic Region (Point 1 –2)
- The material will return to its original shape
after the material is unloaded( like a rubber band).
- The stress is linearly proportional to the strain in
this region.
σ
σ Eε or E
ε
σ : Stress(psi)
E : Elastic modulus (Young’s Modulus) (psi)
ε : Strain (in/in)
- Point 2 : Yield Strength : a point where permanent
deformation occurs. ( If it is passed, the material will
no longer return to its original length.)
 Stress-Strain Diagram (cont)
• Strain Hardening
- If the material is loaded again from Point 4, the
curve will follow back to Point 3 with the same
Elastic Modulus (slope).
- The material now has a higher yield strength of
Point 4.
- Raising the yield strength by permanently straining
the material is called Strain Hardening.
 Stress-Strain Diagram (cont)

• Tensile Strength (Point 3)

- The largest value of stress on the diagram is called
Tensile Strength(TS) or Ultimate Tensile Strength
(UTS)
- It is the maximum stress which the material can
support without breaking.
• Fracture (Point 5)
- If the material is stretched beyond Point 3, the stress
decreases as necking and non-uniform deformation
occur.
- Fracture will finally occur at Point 5.
The stress-strain curve for an aluminum alloy.

(c)2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein under license.
• Stress-strain
behavior
found for
some steels
with yield
point
phenomenon.

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T
E
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S
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P
R
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P
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S
 Yield Strength: Comparison
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
2000
Steel (4140)qt

in ceramic matrix and epoxy matrix composites, since

1000
Yield strength, y (MPa)

since in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

Ti (5Al-2.5Sn)a

in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

700 W (pure)
600 Cu (71500)cw
500 Mo (pure)
Steel (4140)a
400
Steel (1020)cd

Hard to measure,
300
Hard to measure,
Al (6061)ag
200 Steel (1020)hr
¨
Ti (pure)a
Ta (pure)
Room T values
Cu (71500)hr a = annealed
100 hr = hot rolled
dry ag = aged
70 PC cd = cold drawn
60 Al (6061)a Nylon 6,6
50 PET cw = cold worked
40 PVC humid qt = quenched & tempered
PP
30 HDPE

20

LDPE
Tin (pure) 23
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 Tensile Strength, TS
• After yielding, the stress necessary to
continue plastic deformation in metals
increases to a maximum point (M) and
then decreases to the eventual fracture
point (F).
• All deformation up to the maximum
stress is uniform throughout the tensile
sample.
• However, at max stress, a small
constriction or neck begins to form.
• Subsequent deformation will be
confined to this neck area.
• Fracture strength corresponds to the
stress at fracture.
Region between M and F:
• Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts.
• Ceramics: occurs when crack propagation starts.
• Polymers: occurs when polymer backbones are aligned and about to break. 24
 Tensile Strength: Comparison
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
5000 C fibers
Aramid fib
3000 E-glass fib
Tensile strength, TS (MPa)

2000 Steel (4140) qt

AFRE (|| fiber)
1000 W (pure) Diamond GFRE (|| fiber)
Ti (5Al-2.5Sn)aa CFRE (|| fiber)
Steel (4140)
Cu (71500) cw Si nitride
Cu (71500) hr Al oxide
Steel (1020)
300 Al (6061) ag
Ti (pure) a
200 Ta (pure) Room T values
Al (6061) a Si crystal Based on data in Table B4, Callister 6e.
100 wood(|| fiber)
<100> Nylon 6,6 a = annealed
Glass-soda PC PET
PVC GFRE ( fiber) hr = hot rolled
40 Concrete PP
30 CFRE ( fiber) ag = aged
AFRE( fiber) cd = cold drawn
HDPE
20 Graphite cw = cold worked
LDPE
qt = quenched & tempered
10 AFRE, GFRE, & CFRE =
aramid, glass, & carbon
fiber-reinforced epoxy
composites, with 60 vol%
wood ( fiber) fibers.
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1
 Engineering Stress
• Tensile stress, : • Shear stress, t:
Ft Ft F

Area, A Area, A Fs

Fs
Ft Ft
 Fs F Ft
t
Ao Ao
original area
before loading

Stress has units: N/m2 or lb/in2 26

 VMSE

http://www.wiley.com/college/callister/0470125373/vmse/index.htm
http://www.wiley.com/college/callister/0470125373/vmse/strstr.htm

27
 Example 1
Tensile Testing of Aluminum Alloy

Convert the change in length data in the table to engineering

stress and strain and plot a stress-strain curve.
Example 1 SOLUTION
 Ductility, %EL
Ductility is a measure of the l f  lo
plastic deformation that has % EL  x100
been sustained at fracture: lo
smaller %EL
Engineering (brittle if %EL<5%)
tensile Ao
stress,  larger %EL Lo Af Lf
(ductile if
A material that %EL>5%)
suffers very
little plastic Engineering tensile strain, 
deformation is
brittle. Ao  A f
• Another ductility measure: % AR  x100
Ao
• Ductility may be expressed as either percent elongation (%
plastic strain at fracture) or percent reduction in area.
• %AR > %EL is possible if internal voids form in neck. 30
Toughness is Toughness
the ability to
absorb Lower toughness: ceramics
energy up to Higher toughness: metals
fracture (energy
per unit volume of
material).

A “tough”
material has
strength and
ductility.

Approximated
by the area
under the
stress-strain
curve. 31
 Toughness
• Energy to break a unit volume of material
• Approximate by the area under the stress-strain
curve.
Engineering smaller toughness (ceramics)
tensile larger toughness
stress,  (metals, PMCs)

smaller toughness-
unreinforced
polymers

Engineering tensile strain, 

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 F
Linear Elastic Properties
• Hooke's Law: =E
F
• Poisson's ratio: n  x/y simple
tension
metals: n ~ 0.33 test
ceramics: n ~0.25
polymers: n ~0.40


E
1  Modulus of Elasticity, E:
(Young's modulus)
Linear-
elastic
Units:
E: [GPa] or [psi] 33
n: dimensionless
Engineering Strain

Strain is dimensionless.
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Axial (z) elongation (positive strain) and lateral (x and y)
contractions (negative strains) in response to an imposed
tensile stress.

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