UNIT-1

Mechanical Behavior of Metals

The mechanical behavior of a material reflects the relationship between its response or deformation to an
applied load or force. Some of the key mechanical design properties are stiffness, strength, Elasticity,
plasticity, hardness, ductility, malleability and toughness.
A mechanical property determines the effect of applied forces on shape and size of material. The
mechanical properties of materials are ascertained by performing carefully designed laboratory
experiments that replicate as nearly as possible the service conditions. Factors to be considered include the
nature of the applied load and its duration, as well as the environmental conditions.
Elastic and Plastic deformation:
When a sufficient load is applied to a material, it will cause the material to change shape. This change in
shape is called deformation.
Elastic deformations: material regains is original dimensions after removal of external load. As in case of a
rubber ball, if the ball is pressed between two hands it gets deformed and as soon as we release the force
of the hands the ball regains its original shape and size.
Plastic deformation: permanent deformation, material does not regains is original dimension after removal
of external load.
Before loading Loaded Load removed

bonds
stretch

return to
initial
δ
F

Fig1.1: Schematic diagram showing demonstrating elastic deformation

Plastic Deformation (Metals)
Before loading Loaded Load removed

bonds
stretch p lanes
& planes still
shear sheared

δ plastic
δ elastic + plastic

Fig1.2: Schematic diagram showing demonstrating plastic deformation

Strength:
Strength is the measure of the ability of the material to with stand or to resist external forces. Higher the
strength of the material, higher will be the resistance offered by the material to the applied external force.

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For example a wooden bar will break easily and iron bar will not break easily because the resistance
offered by the iron bar is very high.
Depending upon the type of loading the strength may be tensile, compressive, shear, tensional and
bending strength. Strength of the material is represented or measured by the stress.
Definition of Stress:
The stress is defined as the internal resistance offered by the material to resist the deformation on
application of the external force or the internal resistance force per unit area acting on a material. It can be
found as force acting per unit area which can be expressed as

Force or Load Applied

Stress =
Cros − Sec tional Area

σ = P A MPa( MN / m 2 )
0

where P = Load Applied N , ---------------(1.1)

A0 = Original area of corss sec tion, mm 2

This particular stress is caused by a force pulling at right angles to the face; we call it the tensile stress.
Definition of strain:
Materials respond to stress by straining.
It is the ratio of change in length to the original length when the material is under tensile load.
Engineering strain ε is defined according to
l1 − l0 ∆l
e= = ----------------------------------(1.2)
l0 l0

in which l0 is the original length before any load is applied and li is the instantaneous length. Sometimes the
quantity li- l0 is denoted as ∇l and is the deformation elongation or change in length at some instant, as
referenced to the original length.
STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM:
The general method of assessing the behavior of materials under uniform loading is to plot the graph of
stress v/s strain of the measurement made under the tensile testing of materials. In tensile testing, the
standard dimensional material specimen is
loaded under tension. The specimen is loaded
uniformly and load and elongation values are
noted. A number of stress and corresponding
strain values are noted and tabulated. Then
the graph is potted with stress on y-axis and
strain on x-axis.
The stress-strain curve for ductile material is
as shown in Figure 1.3. The curve indicates
some important mechanical properties, such
as elastic limit, plastic range, yield points,
ultimate strength point, fracture strength
Fig. 1.3 Stress-strain curve for ductile material point etc.

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Elastic limit: The elastic limit is the maximum stress which the material can withstand without causing
permanent deformation i.e. after the removal of load; material regains its original dimensions.

Proportionality limit or Limit of proportionality: The level of stress above which the relationship between
stress and strain is not linear. It is the maximum stress upto which Hook’s law is valid i.e. upto this point
stress is directly proportional to strain.

Yield Point: if the material is stressed beyond elastic limit, plastic stage will reach i.e. with the removal of
load; the material will not be able to recover its original size and shape. Beyond elastic limit, strain
increases at a faster rate with very little increase in stress. At point C material yields and there is an
appreciable strain without any increase in stress. For mild steel there are two yield points C and D. the
point C and D are called upper and lower yield point respectively. The stress corresponding to yield point is
known as yield point stress or yield stress.

Ultimate Tensile Stress (UTS): if further load is applied beyond point D, the stress goes on increasing till
the point E is reached. At E, the stress attains the maximum value known as ultimate tensile stress.

Breaking stress: After the specimen has reached the ultimate stress, a neck is formed, which decreases the
cross-sectional area of the specimen. The stress corresponding to point F (fracture point) is known as
breaking stress.
Stress-Strain Curve for Brittle Materials
Figure1.4 shows the stress-strain curve for brittle materials. The brittle materials
do not have the plastic range. They show only a limited elastic range within
which if the load is removed, the materials returns back to its original
dimensions. As the end of this elastic range, if the material is loaded further, the
materials fractures without plastic deformation. The brittle materials will
fracture into pieces, generally if these pieces are joined together; it gives the
same original shape and size of the materials specimen.
Figure 1.4 Stress-strain curve for Brittle material
Linear and Non-Linear Elastic Behavior
Elastic deformation is nonpermanent, which means that when the applied load is released, the piece
returns to its original shape. As shown in the stress–strain plot (Figure 1.5), application of the load
corresponds to moving from the origin up and along the straight line. Upon release of the load, the line is
traversed in the opposite direction, back to the origin. During this loading and unloading, the curve
produced is a straight line, and hence it is termed the linear elastic behavior. The slope of this linear
segment corresponds to the modulus of elasticity E. Almost all metals and ceramics exhibit linear elastic
behavior and the mechanical properties identified in this region are Stiffness, Elastic strength and
Resilience.
Stress

Un Loading

Loading

Strain

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Figure 1.5 Schematic stress–strain diagram showing linear elastic deformation for loading and unloading
cycles.

There are some materials (e.g., gray cast iron, concrete, and many polymers) shows a non linear elastic
behavior. The path traced by the curve during loading and
unloading is different within the elastic portion. (i.e. Elastic
portion of the stress–strain curve is not linear) (Figure 1.6).
Properties identified in this region are Secant modulus,
Tangent modulus and Relicense.
Secant and Tangent modulus: In non-linear elastic
materials, the stress strain curve does not give the modulus
of elasticity directly. So, stiffness in case of these materials is
measured using either tangent or secant modulus. Tangent
modulus is taken as the slope of the stress–strain curve at
some specified level of stress, whereas secant modulus
represents the slope of a secant drawn from the origin to
some given point of the curve. The determination of these
Moduli is illustrated in Figure 1.6.
Figure 1.6 Schematic stress–strain diagram showing nonlinear elastic behavior and how secant and
tangent moduli are determined.
Mechanical Properties- Elastic behavior:
The mechanical properties within the elastic range are responsible for the elastic behavior of a material.
These properties are the stiffness, elastic strength and resilience.

Stiffness:
Stiffness refers to the property of a material due to which it resists the elastic deformation. If the material
follows Hooke’s law then its stiffness is measured by its young modulus or modulus of elasticity, measured
geometrically by stress-strain diagram by determining the slop of the
linear segment.

Material may have same strength but varying stiffness. In Figure 1.7
material A is stiffer than material B, although both have the same
elastic strength. The material having a lower elastic deformation
(lower the strain), higher is the modulus and hence higher is the
stiffness. Material may have same strength but varying stiffness.

Figure 1.7 Stiffness

Elastic Strength:
The elastic strength is the strength at the end at which the material remains elastic and after this it will
change into plastic. It refers to the maximum value of the stress within the elastic range of a material. Once
the elastic strength limit is exceeded, the plastic deformation starts.

Resilience:
Resilience refers to the capacity of a material to absorb energy when loaded within its elastic range and
release this energy upon unloading. All the work performed during elastic deformation is stored as strain

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energy, and is recovered when the load is removed. The resilience is given by the area under the linear
region of the stress-strain curve for a material as shown in Figure 1.8.

Resilience:
The strain energy stored per unit volume in material up to the point of yielding is termed the modulus of
resilence (Ur). It is given by the relation

-------> (1.3)
Assuming a linear elastic region,

---------->(1.4)
in which εy is the strain at yielding. Incorporation of Equation (1.3) into
Equation (1.2) yields

--------------(1.5)
Where Ur = Modulus of resilience, σy= Elastic strength (Stress at point A),
E= Young’s Modulus.

Figure 1.8 Schematic representations showing how modulus of

resilience (corresponding to the shaded area) is determined from the tensile stress–strain behavior of a
material.
From equation (1.5), we can see that the value of Ur, the stored strain energy is higher when the yield
strength is higher and the stiffness is lower. Such materials, commonly called the resilient materials, have
capacity to store higher strain energies, hence can absorb shocks and vibrations. Such materials are used as
spring materials.

Mechanical properties Plastic Behavior

Yield Strength
The start of plastic deformation is also termed as yielding and the stress required to cause yielding is
known as yield strength. It is given by the relation.

Py
σy = MPa ( MN / m 2 ) where Py = Load at which yield begins N ,
A0
--------------(1.6)
A0 = Original area of corss sec tion, mm 2
Ultimate Tensile Strength –UTS (σu): The maximum stress that a material can sustain in tension after yield,
before fracture is known as ultimate Tensile Strength

σ y = Pu A MPa( MN / m 2 ) where Pu = Ultimate Load N , A0 = Original area of corss sec tion, mm 2 --(1.7)
0

Fracture Strength (σt)

The stress at which the fracture of the material take place is termed as the fracture strength it is given by

σ y = Pt A MPa( MN / m 2 ) where Pt = Fracture Load N , A0 = Original area of corss sec tion, mm 2 ---(1.8)
0

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Ductility
Ductility is another important mechanical property. Ductility is the property of the material by virtue of
which the materials can be drawn into thin wires without rupture or fracture. It is the ability of the metal
to withstand elongation (deformation in longitudinal direction) under tension without rupture A metal
that experiences very little or no plastic deformation upon fracture is termed brittle. Example of ductile
materials, Gold, Silver, Aluminum, Copper.
Ductility may be expressed quantitatively as either percent elongation or percent reduction in area.
The percent elongation %EL is the percentage of plastic strain at fracture,

------------------(1.9)

where lf is the fracture length and l0 is the original gauge

The Percent reduction in area %RA is defined as
where A0 is the original cross-sectional area and Af is the cross-sectional area at the point of fracture

---------------------------(1.10)

Toughness:
Toughness is as the ability of a material to absorb energy both in the elastic and plastic range before
fracture. The area under the stress strain curve represents the toughness of a material. That means higher
the plastic deformation, higher is the toughness of a material. Brittle materials do not undergo
considerable deformation, hence their toughness is minimum. The toughness of brittle and ductile
materials by way of shaded area under the stress-strain curve is illustrated in figure 1.9
For dynamic (high strain rate) loading conditions and when a notch (or point of stress concentration) is
present, notch toughness is assessed by using an impact test
For the static (low strain rate) situation, a measure of toughness in metals (derived from plastic
deformation) may be ascertained from the results of a tensile stress–strain test. It is the area under the
curve up to the point of fracture. The units are the same as for resilience (i.e., energy per unit volume
of material).
For a metal to be tough, it must display both strength and ductility. This is demonstrated in Figure 1.9, in
which the stress–strain curves are plotted for both metal types. Hence, even though the brittle metal has
higher yield and tensile strengths, it has a lower toughness than the ductile one, as can be seen by
comparing the areas ABC and AB’C’ in Figure 1.9.

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Figure1.9 Schematic representations of tensile stress–strain behaviour for brittle and ductile materials
loaded to fracture.
True stress and true strain:
True stress: The stress determined by considering the instantaneous cross sectional area is known as true
stress and is given by

σ ' = P A MPa( MN / m 2 ) where P = Load N , A = Ins tan tan eous area of corss sec tion, mm 2 -----(1.11)

True strain: The strain determined using actual length at the time of incremental loading or instantaneous
change length and it is given by

----------------------(1.10)
The total true strain can be calculated by using the integration of the strain of all deformations. If a
deformational element of strain is defined by dε, then

-----------------------(1.12)
The true values of stress and strain considering the changes with deformation will differ much from that of
convectional one. This change is much more at breaking point. The convectional stress-strain diagram as in
Figure 1.3 indicates the stress at fracture is lower
than stress at ultimate strength of material. This
difference occurs as calculated stress has been based
on original area of cross section and length and
consideration is given to the change in them, due to
deformation. In true stress-strain curve the stress
however increases after necking, since the stress are
determined by considering the instantaneous cross
sectional area of the specimen (i.e. decreases rapidly
after necking).
Figure: 1.10 True stress-strain diagram
The relationship between true strain and conventional linear strain follows
l −l ∆l
From Equation (1.2) Convection strain is given by e = 1 0 =
l0 l0

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 Yield point phenomenon or yield point elongation [YPE]:
The yield point phenomenon can be observed only in low carbon steel.
The diagram shows that, just after elastic range, the load increases
with simultaneous drop in stress with continued deformation. At this
point the stress fluctuates about approximate constant value. With
further loading, the stress raises with deformation. The elongation
that occurs with constant stress is called yield point elongation and the
phenomenon is yield point phenomenon.
Figure 1.11 Representative stress–strain behavior found for some
steels demonstrating the yield point phenomenon

Proportional limit.
For most metals, the transition from elastic to plastic region is
gradual. This indicated by a curvature at the onset of plastic
deformation on the stress-strain curve. The point at which
elastic-plastic transition begins is termed the proportional
limit.
In fact, the elastic limit, up to which metal can withstand
stress without undergoing yield, is slightly above the
proportional limit. However, it is very difficult to determine the
elastic limit, and it requires highly sensitive strain measuring
instruments.
Figure 1.12 Typical stress-strain behavior for a metal
showing elastic and plastic deformations, the proportional
limit P.
Proof stress or Offset yield strength:
Certain materials like hardened steel, cold rolled steel, cast iron and many
non-ferrous materials do not exhibit a definite yield point. They simply show
gradual change in curvature, indicating the transition from elastic to plastic
region. Hence, the yield strength cannot be readily obtained. In such cases,
the yield strength is determined by offset method.
In this method, a straight line is drawn parallel to the linear region of the
stress-strain curve at some specified strain offset, which is usually 0.2% of the
failure strain (i.e. 0.002 strain). The corresponding stress at which this offset
line meets the stress-strain curve is taken as the yield strength of the material.
This strength is termed as offset yield strength
Figure 1.13 Offset yield strength or proof stress.

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Plastic deformation of single crystals:

Figure 1.14: Schematic diagram showing the single crystalline and poly crystalline material
We already explained that materials may experience two kinds of deformation: elastic and plastic. Plastic
deformation is permanent, and strength and hardness are measures of a material’s resistance to this
deformation.
On a microscopic scale, plastic deformation corresponds to the net movement of large numbers of atoms
in response to an applied stress. During this process, interatomic bonds must be ruptured and then re-
formed. In crystalline solids, plastic deformation most often involves the motion of dislocations.
Deformation by slip:

Figure 1.15: Schematic diagram showing the mechanism of plastic deformation by Slip

Figure 1.16: Plastic deformation by slip

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If the plastic deformation of a crystal takes place by sliding of crystal planes one over the other, it is
known as slip. In a crystal, the atoms are bonded to each other by some force or energy. When applied
stress acts against these force and reaches a critical value which is greater than bond strength, the bond
between the atoms breaks and atomic planes slides against each other along the slip plane. Further
increase in load leads to failure of crystal along the slip plane. The deformation this case will takes place
along slip direction in slip plane. The slip plane will be the any plane where in, the magnitude of
imperfection will be more. The formation of slip under shear stress is as shown in Figure 1.15 and 1.16.

Consider a metal with polished surface. Let the shear stress τ be applied to it.
When τ crosses some critical load, the atoms in the crystal will move some atomic
distance along surface. It can be seen as a line under microscope known as slip
line. If the loading is continued further the material will fails.
Figure 1.17 Straight slip lines in copper

Slip by dislocation movement

Figure: 1.18 a) Atom movement near dislocation is slip b) Movement of an edge dislocation
When there is a dislocation in crystal, only a small stress will move the atoms along dislocations. The
movement of atoms under stress along slip plane will move the dislocation plane from its initial position to
new position. The continuation of this process under stress will move the dislocated plane until it reaches
the surface as in Figure.1.18. This results in a slip step of magnitude of one burgers vectors in the crystal.
Deformation by Twinning:
If the plastic deformation of a crystal takes place by a region of any planes, it is known as deformation by
twinning.
Twinning is the process in which atoms in a part
of a crystal subjected shear stress rearrange
such that one part of crystal will be the mirror
image of other. The plane on which twinning
deformation takes place is known as twin plane
and the direction is twin direction. The total
region where twinning takes place is known as
twin region and is as shown in figure 1.16.
Figure 1.19 Deformations by Twining
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Generally, the stress required to cause twinning is more than that of slip and also the deformation caused
by twinning is small compared to that caused by slip.
Difference between Slip and Twin Deformation
SLIP TWINNING
1 This deformation takes place by sliding of This deformation takes place by twinning of a region
planes one over other of crystal planes
2 All atoms in one block move over the same Different planes of atoms move fractional distance
distance depending on their distance from the twinning plane.
3 Slip appear as thin lines They appear as broad lines or bands
4 There is very little change in lattice orientation Lattice orientation changes in the twinning region
5 Requires lower shear stress Requires higher shear stress
6 Occurs in metals having more number of slip Occurs in metals having less number of slip systems.
systems. Eg. Cu (FCC) (12 slip systems) Eg. Zn (HCP) (3 Slip systems)
7 More pronounced at higher temperatures and More pronounced at low temperature and impact
gradual loadings. loadings.

Figure 1.20 : Schematic diagram showing difference between slip and twinning deformation

Critical Resolved Shear Stress for Slip [CRSS]:

Slip occurs when the shear stress on slip

plane in slip direction reaches a critical
value called the critical resolved shear
stress. The CRSS is almost equal to the yield
stress on ordinary stress-strain curve. It also
depends upon the composition of the
material and temperature.

Figure 1.21 Critical Resolved Shear Stress for Slip

The stress at which the slip begins in crystal depends upon the relative orientation of stress axis with
respect to slip plane and slip direction. To calculate CRSS, consider a cylindrical single crystal specimen of
cross sectional area A as shown in fig. When a tensile load P is applied on specimen, the angle between
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normal to slip plane and tensile axis is φ and the angle which the slip direction makes with tensile axis is λ
the area of slip plane inclined at φ will be A/Cos φ and the component of axial load acting in slip plane
along slip direction is F Cos λ. Then critical resolved shear stress is given by

Load PCosλ P
τ CR = = = CosλCosφ
C / S Area A A
Cosφ

∴ Shear stress, τ = σ Cosλ Cosφ

σ
τ= when λ = φ = 45

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Therefore, the value of the maximum shear stress acting at an angle of 45° is equal to half of the applied
tensile load.

(i) The critical stress value is less for pure metals, i.e. purity of metals reduces the critical sresss.
(ii) Surface effects, e.g. surface films greatly enhance the critical shear stress.
(iii) The thermal mobility increases with rise in temperature but critical shear stress decreases.
(iv) Rate of deformation and the extent of initial deformation also help in raising the critical shear stress.
(v) Deformation and slip in polycrystalline materials is somewhat more complex. Because of the random
crystallographic orientations of the numerous grains, the direction of the slip varies from one grain to
another.
Plastic deformation in polycrystalline materials
Deformation and slip in polycrystalline materials, as compared to
single crystals is somewhat more complex. Due to the random
crystallographic orientations of the numerous grains and the effect
of neighboring atoms, the direction of slip varies from one grain to
another. Commercial metals are polycrystalline aggregates
because they are made up of a number of small crystals or grains.
Basically each crystal of a polycrystalline material will tend to
deform like a single crystal, but it is not possible because in
polycrystalline materials, each crystal or grain is
Figure 1.22 polycrystalline materials surrounded by other grains, and each crystal or grains has different
orientation. Since every grain in a polycrystalline material is surrounded by other grains a larger stress is
required for deformation, because each grain restricts the deformation of neighboring grains due to the
orientation different between the grains.
Strain Hardening
Strain hardening or work hardening is the phenomenon whereby a ductile metal becomes harder and
stronger as it is plastically deformed. Figure 1.23 illustrates the strain hardening phenomenon using stress
strain diagram. Initially, the metal with yield strength σy0 is plastically deformed to point D. The stress is
released and then reapplied with a resultant new yield strength σyi. The metal has thus become stronger
during the process because σyi is greater than σy0

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 Figure1.23 stress-strain diagram showing the phenomenon
of elastic strain-recovery and strain hardening Strain-
hardening on the basis of dislocation
Dislocation theory of Strain hardening:
One can explain the phenomenon of strain-hardening on the
basis of dislocation-dislocation strain field interactions. The
dislocation density in a metal increases with deformation or
cold work, due to dislocation multiplication or the formation
of new dislocations. Consequently, the average distance of
separation between dislocations decreases - the dislocations
are positioned closer together. On the average, dislocation-
dislocation strain interactions are repulsive. Obviously, the motion of a dislocation is hindered by the
presence of other dislocations. As the dislocation density increases, this resistance to dislocation motion by
other dislocations becomes more pronounced. Clearly, the imposed stress necessary to deform a metal
increases with increasing cold work.
Strain hardening is often utilized commercially to enhance the mechanical properties of metal during
fabrication procedures. The effects of strain hardening may be removed by an annealing heat treatment.

Strain Aging:
Strain aging is a type of behavior, usually associated with the yield point phenomenon. Strain aging is the
process in which there is change in properties of material with time after pre-straining. It is the
phenomenon in which a metal hardens and strengthens if it is allowed to age after plastic deformation.
This behavior can be illustrated in figure 1.24 with the help of stress strain diagram in which Plain carbon
steel strained plastically through the yield-point elongation to a particular strain X (region A). If it is
unloaded and reloaded again without any appreciable delay or any heat treatment yield point doesn't
occur since the dislocations have been torn away from the atmosphere of carbon and nitrogen atoms
(region B). If it is unloaded and reloaded after aging for several days at room temperature or several hours
at an aging temperature like 400 K then yield point reappears and moreover, the yield-point will be
increased (region C). This is due to the diffusion of C and N atoms to the dislocations during the aging to
form new solute atmospheres anchoring the dislocations.

Nitrogen plays a more important role in the strain-aging

of iron that carbon because it has a higher solubility and
diffusion coefficient and produces less complete
precipitation during slow cooling.

Figure1.24: stress-strain curves for low-carbon steel

showing strain aging. Region A, original material
strained through yield point. Region B immediately
retested after reaching point x. Region C, reappearance
and increase in yield point after aging.

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A cylindrical specimen of aluminum having a diameter of 12.8 mm. and a gauge length of 50.800 mm is
pulled in tension. Use the load–elongation characteristics tabulated below to complete parts (a) through
(f).

Load Length (a) Plot the data as engineering stress versus engineering
(N) (mm) strain.
(b) Compute the modulus of elasticity.
(c) Determine the yield strength at a strain offset of
0.002.
(d) Determine the tensile strength of this alloy.
(e) Compute the modulus of resilience.
(f)What is the ductility, in percent elongation?

A specimen of ductile cast iron having a rectangular cross section of dimensions 4.8 mm × 15.9 mm is
deformed in tension. Using the load-elongation data tabulated below, complete problems (a) through (f).

Load Length (a) Plot the data as engineering stress versus engineering
(N) (mm) strain.
(b) Compute the modulus of elasticity.
(c) Determine the yield strength at a strain offset of
0.002.
(d) Determine the tensile strength of this alloy.
(e) Compute the modulus of resilience.
(f)What is the ductility, in percent elongation?

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