6.

0 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Stress and Strain

 Tension
 Compression
 Shear
 Torsion
Elastic deformation
Plastic Deformation
 Yield Strength
 Tensile Strength
 Ductility
 Toughness
 Hardness
6.1 Introduction

To understand and describe how materials deform

(elongate, compress, twist) or break as a function of
applied load, time, temperature, and other
conditions, we need to first discuss the standard test
methods and standard language for mechanical
properties of materials.
6.2 Types of loading
6.3 Concepts of Stress and Strain (tension and
compression)
To compare specimens of different sizes, the load is
calculated per unit area.
Engineering stress: σ = F / Ao
F is load applied perpendicular to specimen cross
section; A0 is cross-sectional area (perpendicular to
the force) before application of the load.
Engineering strain: ε = Δl / lo (× 100 %)
Δl is change in length, lo is the original length.
These definitions of stress and strain allow one to
compare test results for specimens of different cross-
sectional area A0 and of different length l0.

Stress and strain are positive for tensile loads,

negative for compressive loads.

Shear stress: τ = F / Ao
F is load applied parallel to the upper and lower faces
each of which has an area A0.
Shear strain: γ = tanθ (× 100 %)
Torsion is a variation of pure shear. A shear stress in
this case is a function of applied torque T, shear strain
is related to the angle of twist, φ.
6.3 Stress-Strain Behavior
6.3.1 Elastic deformation
Reversible: when the stress is removed, the material
returns to its original dimensions.

In tensile tests, if the deformation is elastic, the stress

strain relationship is called Hooke's law: states that
within the elastic limit, the stress is directly
proportional to strain
σ=Eε
E is Young's modulus or modulus of elasticity, has the
same units as σ, N/m2 or Pa.
Nonlinear elastic deformation
In some materials (many polymers, concrete...),
elastic deformation is not linear, but it is still
reversible.
Elastic Deformation: Atomic scale picture
The force-separation curve for interacting atoms.

E ~ (dF/dr) at ro
(r0 – equilibrium separation)
Modulus of elasticity is a measure of the resistance to
separation of adjacent atoms/ions/molecules
It is proportional to the slope of the interatomic
force–separation curve at the equilibrium spacing.

Elastic Deformation: Anelasticity (time dependence

of elastic deformation)
Elastic deformation is not time independent. In reality
elastic deformation takes time (finite rate of atomic/
molecular deformation processes) - continues after
initial loading, and after load release.
This time dependent elastic behavior is known as
anelasticity.
The effect is normally small for metals but can be
significant for polymers (“visco-elastic behavior”).

Example 6.1
A piece of copper originally 305 mm long is
pulled in tension with a stress of 276 MPa . If
the deformation is entirely elastic, what will be
the resultant elongation? Take E = 110 GPa.
Elastic Deformation: Poisson’s ratio
Materials subject to tension shrink laterally, those
subject to compression, bulge.

The ratio of lateral and axial strains is called the

Poisson's ratio υ.
υ is dimensionless, - sign shows that lateral strain is in
opposite sense to longitudinal strain.

Theoretical value for isotropic material: 0.25

Maximum value: 0.50, Typical value: 0.24 - 0.30
Example 6.2

A tensile stress is to be applied along the long axis of a

cylindrical brass rod that has a diameter of 10 mm.
Determine the magnitude of the load required to
produce a 2.5 x10-3 mm change in diameter if the
deformation is entirely elastic. For brass, the modulus
of elasticity is 97 GPa and the Poisson’s ratio is 0.34
6.3.2 Plastic deformation
Irreversible: when the stress is removed, the material
does not return to its previous dimension.
 Stress and strain are not proportional.
 The deformation is not reversible.
 Deformation occurs by breaking and rearrangement
of atomic bonds (in crystalline materials primarily by
motion of dislocations).
6.3.3 Tensile properties: Yielding and yield strength

• For a low-carbon steel, the stress vs. strain curve

includes both an upper and lower yield point.
• The yield strength is defined in this case as the
average stress at the lower yield point.
Tensile Strength

For structural applications, the yield stress is usually a

more important property than the tensile strength
Once the yield stress has passed, the structure has
deformed beyond acceptable limits.
Ductility

• Ductility is a measure of the deformation at fracture

• Defined by percent elongation or percent reduction
in area
Example 6.3
From the tensile stress-strain behavior for the brass
specimen shown in the figure below, determine the
following:
a. The modulus of elasticity
b. The yield strength at a strain offset of 0.002
c. The maximum load that can be sustained by a
cylindrical specimen having an original diameter of
12.8 mm.
d. The change in length of a specimen originally 250
mm long that is subjected to a tensile stress of 345
MPa.
Resilience
Resilience is the capacity of a material to absorb
energy when it is deformed elastically and then, upon
unloading, to have this energy recovered. The
associated property is the modulus of resilience, Ur.

Mathematically, the modulus of resilience for a

specimen subjected to uniaxial load is the area under
the engineering stress-strain curve taken to yielding.
Therefore,

Assuming a linear elastic region,

Also,

Ur is in J/m3.

Thus, resilient materials have high yield strength and

low moduli of elasticity: such alloy are used in spring
applications.
Mechanical properties of some metals
Toughness

Toughness= the ability to absorb energy up to fracture

= the total area under the strain-stress
curve up to fracture
Units: the energy per unit volume, e.g. J/m3
True Stress and Strain
Engineering stress considers the original area A0 in
stress determination, hence, there is a decrease in
stress after the max. stress to the point of failure.

However, the use of instantaneous area Ai, at the

neck region, produces an increase in stress beyond
the so-called max. stress to the point of failure. This is
known as true stress.
True stress is defined as

The true strain is also defined as

If no change in volume occurs during the deformation

process,

True and engineering stress and strain are related as:

True Stress and Strain
For some metals and alloys, the region of true stress-
strain curve from the onset of plastic deformation to
the point at which necking begins may be
approximated by

K = constant, vary from alloy to alloy

n = constant, known as strain-hardening exponent, ˂ 1

Values of K and n for some alloys are shown below

Example 6.4
A cylindrical specimen of steel having an original
diameter of 12.8 mm (0.505 in.) is tensile tested to
fracture and found to have an engineering fracture
strength f of 460 MPa (67,000 psi). If its cross
sectional diameter at fracture is 10.7 mm (0.422
in.), determine:
(a) The ductility in terms of percent reduction in
area.
(b) The true stress at fracture.
Example 6.5

Compute the strain-hardening exponent n for

an alloy in which a true stress of 415 Mpa
(60,000 psi) produces a true strain of 0.10;
assume a value of 1035 MPa (150,000 psi) for K.
Hardness

Please read !!!!

6.4 What are the “limits” of safe deformation

Design stress: σd = N’σc where σc = maximum

anticipated stress, N’ is the “design factor” > 1.

Want to make sure that σd < σy

Safe or working stress: σw = σy/N

where N is “factor of safety” > 1.