Mechanical Properties

Mechanical Properties

The mechanical properties of materials depend on their

composition and microstructure.

In previous lectures , we introduced material’s composition,

nature of bonding, crystal structure, and defects.
Mechanical Properties
The main goal of this section is to introduce the basic concepts
associated with mechanical properties.

We will learn terms such as tension , hardness, stress, strain,

elastic and plastic deformation and strain rate.

We will also review some of the testing procedures that

engineers use to evaluate many of these properties.
Types of Loads

According to their
location

Normal Shear Torsion

 Types of Loads

Tensile and compressive stresses are normal stresses.

A normal stress arises when the applied force acts perpendicular to the area of
interest.

Tension causes elongation in the direction of the applied force, whereas

compression causes shortening.

A shear stress arises when the applied force acts in a direction parallel to the
area of interest.
Deformation:
General term which is used to indicate the change in form
or dimensions of a body. It may be due to external load,
heat, moisture,…

Rigidity , Stiffness:
Resistance to deformation under applied load.

Malleability:
Ability to deformation under compressive load.

Hardness:
Resistance to scratching, penetration, wear.
 The Tensile Test: Use of the Stress–Strain
Diagram

The tensile test measures the resistance of a material to a static applied

force.

Information concerning the strength, Young’s modulus, and ductility of a

material can be obtained from such a tensile test.

The tensile testing machine is designed to elongate the specimen at a constant

rate, and to continuously measure the instantaneous applied load and the
resulting elongations

A universal testing machine on which tensile and compressive tests can be

performed often is used
A test setup is shown in Figure
A universal testing machine
 TEST specimens

Normally, the cross section is circular, but rectangular specimens are also used.

During testing, deformation is confined to the narrow center region, which has
a uniform cross section along its length.

The standard diameter is approximately 12.8 mm (0.5 in.), whereas the

reduced section length should be at least four times this diameter; 60 mm (2
in.) is common.
Basic steps

1- The specimen is placed in the testing machine and a force F, called the
load, is applied.

2- A strain gage or extensometer is used to measure the amount that the

specimen stretches between the gage marks when the force is applied. Thus, the
change in length of the specimen (L) is measured with respect to the original
length (L0).

3- A stress–strain test typically takes several minutes to perform and is

destructive; that is, the test specimen is permanently deformed and usually
fractured.

4- The output of such a tensile test is recorded on a strip chart (or by a

computer) as load or force versus elongation.
 load or force versus elongation.
Stress–Strain Diagram for some materials
Stress is defined by the relationship

F : instantaneous load applied perpendicular to the specimen cross section, in

units of newtons (N) or pounds force (lbf),
A0 : original cross sectional area before any load is applied (m2 or in.2).
Engineering strain is defined according to

L0 : original length before any load is applied,

Li : is the instantaneous length.
ДL : deformation elongation or change in length at some instant, as referenced
to the original length.

Engineering strain (subsequently called just strain) is unitless

 STRESS–STRAIN BEHAVIOR for ductile material

Elastic behavior

Deformation in which stress and strain are proportional is called elastic

deformation;

A plot of stress versus strain results in a linear relationship, as shown in Figure.

Elastic deformation is nonpermanent, which means that when the applied load
is released, the piece returns to its original shape.
 STRESS–STRAIN BEHAVIOR
Elastic behavior

stress and strain are proportional to each other through the relationship

This is known as Hooke’s law,

The constant of proportionality E (Gpa): the modulus of elasticity, or
Young’s modulus.
The slope of this linear segment corresponds to the modulus of elasticity E.

For most typical metals the magnitude

of this modulus ranges between 45 GPa ,
for magnesium, and 407 GPa for tungsten
 Modulus of elasticity, or Young’s modulus.

Material Value of E in GPa

Aluminium 2024-T3 70
Aluminium 6061-T6 70
Aluminium 7075-T6 70
Concrete 20 – 35
Copper 100
Glass fibre 65
Cast iron 100
Steel, High strength 200
Steel, Structural 200
Titanium 100
Wood 10-15
Elastic behavior of Al vs steel
Elastic behavior

There are some materials (e.g., concrete, and many polymers) for which this
initial elastic portion of the stress–strain curve is not linear

hence, it is not possible to determine a

modulus of elasticity as described
above. For this nonlinear behavior,
either tangent or secant modulus is
normally used.

Tangent modulus is taken as the slope

of the stress–strain curve at some
specified level of stress,
EXAMPLE 1
 STRESS–STRAIN BEHAVIOR
Elastic behavior

Poisson’s ratio is defined as the ratio of the lateral strain to axial strain in an
axial loaded specimen,

The negative sign is included in the

expression so that will always be
positive, since x and z will always be of
opposite sign

For many metals and other

alloys, values of Poisson’s ratio range
between 0.25 and 0.35.

G: modulus of rigidity (GPa)

EXAMPLE . 2
EXAMPLE . 2
YIELDING AND YIELD STRENGTH

It is therefore desirable to know the stress level at which plastic deformation

begins, or where the phenomenon of yielding occurs.

the point of yielding may be determined as the initial departure from linearity of
the stress–strain curve; this is sometimes called the proportional limit.

• Typically linear relation until

the proportional limit, pl

• No permanent deformation
until the elastic limit, el

• Yield strength, Sy , defined at

point where significant plastic
deformation begins
YIELDING AND YIELD STRENGTH

In such cases the position of this point may not be determined precisely.

elastic and plastic

deformations, the Representative
proportional limit P, stress–strain
and the yield behavior found for
some steels
strength y , as
demonstrating the
determined using yield point
the 0.002 strain phenomenon
offset method

A straight line is constructed parallel to the elastic portion of the stress–strain

curve at usually 0.002.
The stress corresponding to the intersection of this line and the stress–strain curve
as it bends over in the plastic region is defined as the yield strength y .
 TENSILE STRENGTH

After yielding, the stress necessary to continue plastic deformation in metals

increases to a maximum point M in , and then decreases to the eventual
fracture, point F.

The tensile strength TS (MPa) is the stress at the maximum point on the
engineering stress–strain curve. This corresponds to the maximum stress that can
be sustained by a structure in tension;
TENSILE STRENGTH

At this maximum stress, a small constriction or neck begins to form at some

point, and all subsequent deformation is confined at this neck,

This phenomenon is termed ‘‘necking,’’ and fracture ultimately occurs at the

neck. The fracture strength corresponds to the stress at fracture.
 STRESS–STRAIN BEHAVIOR for ductile material

• Typically linear relation until the proportional limit, pl =A

• No permanent deformation until the elastic limit, el = B

• Yield strength, Sy , defined at point where significant plastic deformation begins =C

• Ultimate strength, Su , defined as the maximum stress on the diagram =D

• The fracture strength corresponds to the stress at fracture = F

 True Stress-Strain curve

 Engineering stress-strain diagrams (commonly

used) are based on original area.

 Area typically reduces under load, particularly

during “necking” after point u. Engineering
stress-strain

 True stress is based on actual area

corresponding to current P.

 True strain is the sum of the incremental

elongations divided by the current gauge length
at load P.

 Note that true stress continually increases all

the way to fracture.
True Stress-strain