4 MECHANICAL TESTING

4.1 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

Mechanical properties reveal elastic and inelastic (plastic) behavior when force is
applied. Many materials, when in service, are subjected to forces or loads; examples
include the aluminum alloy from which an airplane wing is constructed and the steel in
an automobile axle. In such situations it is necessary to know the characteristics of the
material and to design the member from which it is made such that any resulting
deformation will not be excessive and fracture will not occur. The mechanical behavior
of a material reflects the relationship between its response or deformation to an applied
load or force.
4.1.1 TENSION TESTING
Tension test is performed in accordance to ASTM A370 and E8. If a load is static or
changes relatively slowly with time and is applied uniformly over a cross section or
surface of a member, the mechanical behavior may be ascertained by a simple stress–
strain test; these are most commonly conducted for metals at room temperature. A
specimen is deformed, usually to fracture, with a gradually increasing tensile load that is
applied uniaxially along the long axis of a specimen. A standard tensile specimen is
shown in figure 4.1. Normally, the cross section is circular, but rectangular specimens are
also used. During testing, deformation is confined to the narrow center region, which has
a uniform cross section along its length.
The specimen is mounted by its ends into the holding grips of the testing apparatus
(Figure 4.2). The tensile testing machine is designed to elongate the specimen at a
constant rate, and to continuously and simultaneously measure the instantaneous applied
load (with a load cell) and the resulting elongations (using an extensometer). A stress–
strain test typically takes several minutes to perform and is destructive; that is, the test
specimen is permanently deformed and usually fractured. The output of such a tensile test
is recorded on a strip chart (or by a computer) as load or force versus elongation. These
load–deformation characteristics are dependent on the specimen size. For example, it will
require twice the load to produce the same elongation if the cross-sectional area of the
specimen is doubled. To minimize these geometrical factors, load and elongation are
normalized to the respective parameters of engineering stress and engineering strain.
Engineering stress is defined by the relationship
σ = F/A

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in which F is the instantaneous load applied perpendicular to the specimen cross section,
in units of newtons (N) or pounds force (lbf), and A0 is the original cross-sectional area
before any load is applied (m2 or in.2).
The units of engineering stress (referred to subsequently as just stress) are megapascals,
MPa (SI) (where 1 Mpa =106 N/m2), and pounds force per square inch, psi (Customary
U.S.) Engineering strain is defined according to:

in which l0 is the original length before any load is applied, and li is the instantaneous
length. Sometimes the quantity li – l0 is denoted as ∆l, and is the deformation elongation
or change in length at some instant, as referenced to the original length. Engineering
strain (subsequently called just strain) is unit-less, but meters per meter or inches per inch
are often used the value of strain is obviously independent of the unit system.

Figure 4.1 Dimensions of standard tensile specimen

Figure 4.2 The specimen is mounted by its ends into the holding grips of tensometer

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4.1.1.1 Elastic Limit or Proportional Limit (P)
The ability of the material to return to its original shape after the load has been removed
is called as elastic limit. It can also be defined as the greatest stress the material can
withstand without any measurable permanent strain after unloading as shown in Figure
4.3(a).

(a) (b)

Fig 4.3 showing stress strain behavior under tensile loading

4.1.1.2 Modulus of Elasticity

Modulus of Elasticity or Young’s modulus is a measure of material stiffness. It is given
by the slope of the stress strain curve as shown in Figure 4.4.

.
Figure 4.4 showing Modulus of Elasticity as slope of stress strain curve
The degree to which a structure deforms or strains depends on the magnitude of an
imposed stress. For most metals that are stressed in tension and at relatively low levels,
stress and strain are proportional to each other through the relationship:

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 This is known as Hooke’s law, and the constant of proportionality E (GPa or psi) is the
modulus of elasticity, or Young’s modulus. For most typical metals the magnitude of this
modulus ranges between 45 GPa, for magnesium, and 407 GPa, for tungsten. The moduli
of elasticity are slightly higher for ceramic materials, which range between about 70 and
500 GPa. Polymers have modulus values that are smaller than both metals and ceramics,
and which lie in the range 0.007 and 4 GPa.
Modulus of elasticity is determined by the binding forces between atoms (structure
intensive property). E cannot be changed but it can be improve by forming composites.
Only slightly affected by alloying addition, heat treatment or cold work. The stiffness of
any metal varies inversely with its temperature, that is, as temperature increases, stiffness
decreases, and vice versa.
4.1.1.3 Yielding and Yield Strength
Most structures are designed to ensure that only elastic deformation will result when a
stress is applied. It is therefore desirable to know the stress level at which plastic
deformation begins, or where the phenomenon of yielding occurs. For metals that
experience this gradual elastic–plastic transition, the point of yielding may be determined
as the initial departure from linearity of the stress–strain curve; this is sometimes called
the proportional limit, as indicated by point P in Figure 4.5a. In such cases the position of

Figure 4.5 (a) Typical stress–strain behavior for a metal showing elastic and plastic deformations, the
proportional limit P, and the yield strength as determined using the 0.002 strain offset method. (b)
Representative stress–strain behavior found for some steels demonstrating the yield point
phenomenon.
this point may not be determined precisely. As a consequence, a convention has been
established wherein a straight line is constructed parallel to the elastic portion of the stress–
strain curve at some specified strain offset, usually 0.002. The stress corresponding to the
intersection of this line and the stress–strain curve as it bends over in the plastic region is
defined as the yield strength. This is demonstrated in Figure 4.5a. Of course, the units of
yield strength are MPa or psi.
In case of low carbon steel yield point is defined as a point where a definite increase in the
length of the specimen occurs with no increase in the load as it can be seen from Fig 4.6. In
this case a definite yield point is taken.

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 The magnitude of the yield strength for a metal is a measure of its resistance to plastic
deformation. Yield strengths may range from 35 MPa (5000 psi) for low-strength
aluminum to over 1400 MPa (200,000 psi) for high-strength steels.

Figure 4.6 showing typical load-extension behavior for mild steel

4.1.1.4 Tensile Strength
After yielding, the stress necessary to continue plastic deformation in metals increases to
a maximum, point M in Figure 4.7, and then decreases to the eventual fracture, point F.
The tensile strength TS (MPa or psi) is the stress at the maximum on the engineering
stress–strain curve (Figure 4.7). This corresponds to the maximum stress that can be
sustained by a structure in tension; if this stress is applied and maintained, fracture will
result. All deformation up to this point is uniform throughout the narrow region of the
tensile specimen. However, at this maximum stress, a small constriction or neck begins to
form at some point, and all subsequent deformation is confined at this neck, as indicated
by the schematic specimen insets in Figure 4.7. This phenomenon is termed ‘‘necking,’’
and fracture ultimately occurs at the neck. The fracture strength corresponds to the stress
at fracture. Tensile strengths may vary anywhere from 50 MPa (7000 psi) for an
aluminum to as high as 3000 MPa (450,000 psi) for the high-strength steels. Ordinarily,
when the strength of a metal is cited for design purposes, the yield strength is used. This
is because by the time a stress corresponding to the tensile strength has been applied,
often a structure has experienced so much plastic deformation that it is useless.
Furthermore, fracture strengths are not normally specified for engineering design
purposes.

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 Figure 4.7 Typical engineering stress-strain behaviour to fracture point, F. The tensile strength TS is
indicated at point M. The circular insets represent the geometry of the deformed specimen at various
points along the curve.
4.1.1.5 Ductility
Ductility is another important mechanical property. It is a measure of the degree of
plastic deformation that has been sustained at fracture. A material that experiences very
little or no plastic deformation upon fracture is termed brittle. The tensile stress–strain
behaviors for both ductile and brittle materials are schematically illustrated in Figure 4.8.
Ductility may be expressed quantitatively as either percent elongation or percent
reduction in area. The percent elongation %EL is the percentage of plastic strain at
fracture, or

where lf is the fracture length and l0 is the original gauge length as above. In as much as a
significant proportion of the plastic deformation at fracture is confined to the neck region,
the magnitude of %EL will depend on specimen gauge length. The shorter l0, the greater
is the fraction of total elongation from the neck and, consequently, the higher the value of
%EL.
Knowledge of the ductility of materials is important for at least two reasons. First, it
indicates to a designer the degree to which a structure will deform plastically before
fracture. Second, it specifies the degree of allowable deformation during fabrication
operations. We sometimes refer to relatively ductile materials as being ‘‘forgiving,’’ in
the sense that they may experience local deformation without fracture should there be an
error in the magnitude of the design stress calculation. Brittle materials are approximately
considered to be those having a fracture strain of less than about 5%.

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Figure 4.8 Schematic representations of tensile stress–strain behavior for brittle and ductile materials loaded
to fracture.

Figure 4.9 (a) Cup-and-cone fracture in aluminum. (b) Brittle fracture in a mild steel.
4.1.1.6 Resilience
Resilience is the capacity of a material to absorb energy when it is deformed elastically
and then, upon unloading, to have this energy recovered. The associated property is the
modulus of resilience, Ur, which is the strain energy per unit volume required to stress a
material from an unloaded state up to the point of yielding. Assuming a linear elastic
region,
Ur = ½ ( σy Єy)
in which Єy is the strain at yielding.
The units of resilience are the product of the units from each of the two axes of the
stress–strain plot. For SI units, this is joules per cubic meter (J/m3, equivalent to Pa),
whereas with Customary U.S. units it is inch-pounds force per cubic inch (in.-lbf /in.3,
equivalent to psi). Both joules and inch-pounds force are units of energy, and thus this
area under the stress–strain curve represents energy absorption per unit volume (in cubic
meters or cubic inches) of material. Thus, resilient materials are those having high yield
strengths and low moduli of elasticity; such alloys would be used in spring applications.

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 Figure 4.10 Schematic representation showing how modulus of resilience (corresponding to the
shaded area) is determined from the tensile stress–strain behavior of a material.
4.1.2 COMPRESSION TESTING
Compression test is performed according to ASTM E09. A compression test determines
behavior of materials under crushing loads. The specimen is compressed and deformation
at various loads is recorded. Axial compression testing is a useful procedure for
measuring the plastic flow behavior and ductile fracture limits of a material. Measuring
the plastic flow behavior requires frictionless (homogenous compression) test conditions,
while measuring ductile fracture limits takes advantage of the barrel formation and
controlled stress and strain conditions at the equator of the barreled surface when
compression is carried out with friction.
Axial compression testing is also useful for measurement of elastic and compressive
fracture properties of brittle materials or low-ductility materials. In any case, the use of
specimens having large L/D ratios should be avoided to prevent buckling and shearing
modes of deformation.
Figure 4.11 shows variation of the strains during a compression test without friction
(homogenous compression) and with progressively higher levels of friction and
decreasing aspect ratio L/D (shown as h/d).

Figure 4.11 Variation of the strains during a compression test

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4.1.2.1 Modes of Deformation in Compression Testing

Figure 4.12 illustrates the modes of deformation in compression testing. (a) Buckling,
when L/D > 5. (b) Shearing, when L/D > 2.5. (c) Double barreling, when L/D > 2.0 and
friction is present at the contact surfaces. (d) Barreling, when L/D < 2.0 and friction is
present at the contact surfaces. (e) Homogenous compression, when L/D < 2.0 and no
friction is present at the contact surfaces. (f) Compressive instability due to work-
softening material.

Figure 4.12 Modes of deformation in compression testing

4.1.2.1 Typical Materials

The following materials are typically subjected to a compression test.

Concrete
Metals
Plastics
Ceramics
Composites
Corrugated Cardboard

4.1.3 BEND TEST

Bend tests for ductility provide a simple way to evaluate the quality of materials by their
ability to resist cracking or other surface irregularities during one continuous bend. No
reversal of the bend force shall be employed when conducting these tests. The type of
bend test used determines the location of the forces and constraints on the bent portion of
the specimen, ranging from no direct contact to continuous contact. The test can
terminate at a given angle of bend over a specified radius or continue until the specimen
legs are in contact. The bend angle can be measured while the specimen is under the

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 bending force (usually when the semi-guided bend test is employed), or after removal of
the force as when performing a free-bend test. Product requirements for the material
being tested determine the method used.

4.1.3.1 Types Of Test Methods For Bend Testing

Following are the four methods for ductility testing employing bending:

Guided-Bend
Semi-guided Bend
Free-Bend
Bend and Flatten

Guided-Bend Test

The guided-bend test is made by sup- porting the specimen on pins, rollers, or radiused
flats near each end and applying a force through a pin, mandrel, or plunger midway
between two supports, as shown schematically in figure 4.13, until the desired bend is
formed. No force is applied directly to the outer face of the bend.

Figure 4.13 Schematic Fixture for the Guided-Bend Test

Semi-Guided-Bend Test

The semi-guided-bend test employs a constraining force on the inside of the bend during
the initiation of the bending and continuing until the final bend condition is achieved. The
semi-guided bend test is made by applying a force transversely to the specimen’s long
axis in the portion that is being bent. The angle of bend in the semi-guided-bend test is

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measured while the specimen is held stationary under the force forming the bend. The
location of the bend along the length of the specimen is unimportant. Specimen is
unimportant. The specimen is clamped or supported by one of the methods shown
schematically in figures 4.14-4.15. It is possible that different results will be obtained
with the use of different devices. The method used shall be described in the test report on
the ductility of the material being evaluated.

Arrangement A-One End Held

Arrangement A involves holding one end of the semi-guided bend specimen and
applying a force transversely near the free end as in figure 4.14. The bend is formed
around a stationary pin, mandrel, or roller of a specified radius. Bending is continued
until failure occurs or the specified angle of bend has been achieved.

Figure 4.14 Schematic Fixture for Semi-Guided-Bend Test Arrangement A-One End Held-Force
Applied Near Free End

Arrangement B-Thin Materials

Arrangement B is for semi-guided bend tests of thin specimens, and includes a support
between the clamp and the bend radius, as shown schematically in figure 4.15. No
tension force is applied to the specimen during the bending. The results should be the
same for tests using either Arrangement A, or Arrangement B.

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 Figure 4.15 Arrangement B for Semi-Guided-Bend Test of Thin Specimens-One End Held

Arrangement C-Mandrel Contact on Outer Surface

Arrangement C employs a stationary pin, or mandrel, over which the semi-guided-bend

specimen is bent by the force of a roller, or mandrel, in contact with the outer surface of
the bend (as shown schematically in figure 4.16). This may exert a small tension force in
the bend.

Figure 4.16 Schematic Fixture for Semi-Guided-Bend Test Arrangement C-One End Held-Force
Applied Near Mandrel

Free-Bend Test

The free-bend test is made with no external force applied to the specimen in the
immediate area of the bend. The force to initiate bending for a free-bend test shall be
applied at, or within one width distance from, the ends of the specimen. This may be
done by gripping the specimen. If the material is too stiff to respond to such force it shall
be supported at the mid-length (as shown schematically in figure 4.17) over a span of at
least the specimen width while the initial force is applied near the two ends of the
specimen.

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 Figure 4.17 Free-Bend Support and Force

The angle of a free-bend is measured once the specimen has been removed from the
bending fixture and is under no constraining force. There is no radius of bend
measurement required for a free-bend test.

Type 1-Free-Bend–180° Bend: The bending is initiated as described previously and is

then continued until a 180° bend is developed by applying force to bring the legs of the
specimen to a parallel position (as shown schematically in figure 4.18).

Type 2-Free Bend (Flat on Itself Bend): The legs of the specimen are placed under flat
platens and compressed to contact no closer than one width of specimen distance from
the outer extension of the bend (as shown schematically in figure 4.19).

Figure 4.18 Type 1 180° Free-Bend

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 Figure 4.19 Type 2 Flat-on-Itself Free-Bend

After completing the free-bend, the surface is examined for cracks and imperfections.

Bend And Flatten Test

Bend and Flatten—For the bend and flatten test for ductility, an initial 180° bend is made
as described in previous paragraphs. The specimen is then placed between two parallel
platens extending beyond the bent portion of the specimen and wider than the specimen
width. Force is exerted to clamp the specimen and cause the two legs to contact at the
bend, exclusive of the eye of the bend (as shown schematically in figure 4.20).

Figure 4.20 Bend and Flatten

After bending, the convex surface of the bend is examined for evidence of a crack or
surface irregularity. If the specimen fractures, the material has failed the test. When
complete fracture does not occur, the criterion for failure is the number and size of cracks
or other surface irregularity visible to the unaided eye occurring on the convex surface of
the specimen after bending, as specified by the product standard. Any cracks within one
thickness of the edge of the specimen are not considered a bend test failure. Cracks
occurring in the corners of the bent portion shall not be considered significant unless they
exceed the size specified for corner cracks in the product standard.

Bend tests are made in one of two directions relative to the principal working direction
employed in production processing of the material. Longitudinal tests use a specimen
with its long dimension aligned with the processing direction such that the bend is formed

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 across the processing direction, as shown in figure 4.21. Transverse tests use a specimen
with the long dimension perpendicular to the processing direction so that the bend axis is
aligned with the processing direction, as shown in figure 4.22. The axis of bend is the
center of the bend radius.

Figure 4.21 Longitudinal Bent Test (Arrow showing direction of processing)

Figure 4.22 Transverse Bent Test (Arrow showing direction of processing)

4.1.4 FLATTENING TEST

The flattening test is a ductility test which test is employed to evaluate the ability of
metallic tubes of circular cross-section to undergo plastic deformation by flattening. It
may also be used to reveal defects in the tubes. The flattening test consists of flattening
the a test piece of specified length cut from a tube, in a direction perpendicular to the
longitudinal axis of the tube until the distance between the platens reaches a specified
value as shown in figure 4.23 (a) and (b).
In the case of close flattening, the internal surfaces of the test piece should be in contact
with each other over at least half of the internal width of the flattened test piece as it can
be seen from figure 4.23 (c).

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 Figure 4.23 Principle of the flattening test on metallic tubes

Flattening test is performed according to ASTM A513. A test sample 4 to 6 in. (101.6 to
152.4 mm) in length shall be flattened between parallel plates with the weld 90° from the
direction of applied force (at the point of maximum bending) until opposite walls of the
tubing meet. Applications for this test along with the flaring test include situations where
round tubing is to be formed into other shapes.

4.1.5 NICK BREAK TEST

The NICK-BREAK TEST is useful for determining the internal quality of the weld metal.
This test reveals various internal defects (if present), such as slag inclusions, gas pockets,
lack of fusion, and oxidized or burned metal. The nick break test specimens shall be
approximately 9 inches long and approximately 1 inch wide and may be machine cut or
oxygen cut. They shall be notched with a hacksaw on each side at the centre of the weld
and each notch shall be approximately 1/8 inch deep.
The nick break specimens shall be broken by pulling in a tensile machine, by supporting
the ends and striking the centre, or by supporting one end and striking the other end with
a hammer. The exposed area of the fracture shall be at least ¾ inch wide. Figure 4.24
shows nick break test of a butt weld. The weld metal exposed in the break should be
completely fused, free from slag inclusions, and contain no gas pockets greater than 1/16
inch across their greatest dimension and the combined area of all gas pockets shall not
exceed 2% of the exposed surface area. Slag inclusions shall not be more than 1/32 inch
in depth and shall not be more than 1/8 inch or one-half the nominal wall thickness in
length, whichever is smaller. There shall be at least ½ inch of sound weld metal between
adjacent slag inclusions.

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 Figure 4.24 Nick-break test of a butt weld

4.1.6 PULL TEST

Pull testing is done to detect tube to tube-sheet joint for heat exchangers, wire bonds in
electronics industry, pull off strength for hardened concrete, dental purposes etc. In
laboratory scale tube to tube-sheet joint for heat exchangers is done.

4.1.6.1 Pull Out Testing Procedure for Tube to Tube-Sheet Joint of Heat Exchangers

The adaptors used for pull test must be hard enough to withstand the compressive load
applied during clamping. The design of adaptor depends upon the Tube thickness,
internal diameter and its material. Fix the attachment upon the machine used for the pull
test. Clamp the specimen in the attachment as shown in the figure 4.25. The surface of the
specimen should make full contact with the clamps. The specimen is subjected to a
tension to measure the force required to pull off the tube from the tube sheet. The force
applied and the movement of tension head should be recorded. Note maximum load at
which the tube to tube sheet bond breaks. Remove the specimen from machine after
completion of the test.

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 Figure 4.25 Clamped pull test sample

4.1.7 CHARPY IMPACT TESTING

Impact tests are designed to measure the resistance to failure of a material to a suddenly
applied force. The test measures the impact energy, or the energy absorbed prior to
fracture. The most common methods of measuring impact energy are the:

• Charpy Test
• Izod Test

Impact energy is a measure of the work done to fracture a test specimen. When the striker
impacts the specimen, the specimen will absorb energy until it yields. At this point, the
specimen will begin to undergo plastic deformation at the notch. The test specimen
continues to absorb energy and work hardens at the plastic zone at the notch. When the
specimen can absorb no more energy, fracture occurs.

While most commonly used on metals, it is also used on polymers, ceramics and
composites. The Charpy test is most commonly used to evaluate the relative toughness or
impact toughness of materials and as such is often used in quality control applications
where it is a fast and economical test. It is used more as a comparative test rather than a
definitive test. The standard specimen for charpy impact test is shown in figure 4.26. The
Charpy test involves striking a suitable test piece with a striker, mounted at the end of a
pendulum. The test piece is fixed in place at both ends and the striker impacts the test
piece immediately behind a a machined notch as it can be seen from figure 4.27.

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 Figure 4.26 Standard sample for impact testing (ASTM E23)

Figure 4.27 Setup for impact testing

At the point of impact, the striker has a known amount of kinetic energy. The impact
energy is calculated based on the height to which the striker would have risen, if no test
specimen was in place, and this compared to the height to which the striker actually rises.
Tough materials absorb a lot of energy, whilst brittle materials tend to absorb very little
energy prior to fracture. Moreover fracture surfaces for ductile failure are dull whereas
fracture surfaces for brittle surfaces are shiny and flat.

Figure 4.28 Surfaces for ductile and brittle specimens

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4.1.7.1 Factors Affecting Charpy Impact Energy

Factors that affect the Charpy impact energy of a specimen will include:

• Yield strength and ductility

• Notches
• Temperature and strain rate
• Fracture mechanism

Yield Strength and Ductility

For a given material the impact energy will be seen to decrease if the yield strength is
increased, i.e. if the material undergoes some process that makes it more brittle and less
able to undergo plastic deformation. Such processes may include cold working or
precipitation hardening.

Notches

The notch serves as a stress concentration zone and some materials are more sensitive
towards notches than others. The notch depth and tip radius are therefore very important.

Temperature and Strain Rate

Most of the impact energy is absorbed by means of plastic deformation during the
yielding of the specimen. Therefore, factors that affect the yield behaviour and hence
ductility of the material such as temperature and strain rate will affect the impact energy.
This type of behaviour is more prominent in materials with a body centred cubic
structure, where lowering the temperature reduces ductility more markedly than face
centred cubic materials.

Fracture Mechanism

Metals tend to fail by one of two mechanisms, microvoid coalescence or cleavage.

Cleavage can occur in body centred cubic materials, where cleavage takes place along the
{001} crystal plane. Microvoid coalescence is the more common fracture mechanism
where voids form as strain increases, and these voids eventually join together and failure
occurs. Of the two fracture mechanisms cleavage involved far less plastic deformation ad
hence absorbs far less fracture energy.

Ductile to Brittle Transition

Some materials such as carbon steels undergo what is known as a ‘ductile to brittle
transition’. This behaviour is obvious when impact energy is plotted as a function of
temperature. The resultant curve will show a rapid dropping off of impact energy as the
temperature decreases. If the impact energy drops off very sharply, a transition

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temperature can be determined as shown in figure 4.29. This is often a good indicator of
the minimum recommended service temperature for a material.

Figure 4.29 Temperature dependence of the Charpy V-notch impact energy (curve A) and percent
shear fracture (curve B) for A283 steel.

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