Mechanics of Solids

Stress Strain Relationship

Engr. Omer Altaf

Lecturer
University of Lahore
Omer_altaf@yahoo.com
 Strain
Unit Deformation
Elongation Divided by the Length
ϵ = L/L
Unit less quantity
In engineering Works, Strains of Order 1.0 x
10-3 are frequently encountered
 Assumptions
The specimen must be of uniform cross
section
The material must be homogeneous
The load must be axial, that is, produce
uniform stress
 Material Test & Stress-
Strain Diagram
The material strength depends on its ability to sustain a load without
undue deformation or failure.

The property is inherent in the material itself and must be determined

by experiment.

One of the most important tests to be performed in this regard is the

tension or compression. To do so, a standard specimen is made.

The test is performed in a universal testing machine. Shown in figure

below is the specimen and test result of Stress-Strain Diagram.
In a tension test a
specimen is gripped
between the jaws of a
testing machine. Values
of the load and the
elongation in a specific
length, called the guage
length, are observed
simultaneously.
 Stress-Strain Diagram
Graph with ordinate representing the load
(Stress) and the abscissa representing the
elongation (% Strain).
 Stress-Strain Diagram for
Medium Carbon Structural Steel)
Stress-Strain Diagram for Medium
Carbon Structural Steel)
Stages of Stress Strain Diagram
The Stress-Strain Diagram consists of four stages during the whole
process
1. Elastic Stage
2. Yielding Stage
3. Strain Hardening Stage and
4. Necking Stage

Note: From yielding Stage some permanent plastic deformation

occurs. About 90% of the engineering problems only concern the
elastic deformation in structural members and mechanical
components.Only 10% of engineering work concerns plastic and
other nonlinear stage (e.g. metal forming).
In this subject, we are only involved in the linear elastic region, in
which the relationship between the stress-strain is linear.
 COMPONENTS OF STRESS-
STRAIN DIAGRAM
Proportional Limit (P.L.)

Maximum stress that may be developed

during a simple tension test such that the
stress is linear function of strain. (No
proportional limit for brittle materials).
 COMPONENTS OF STRESS-
STRAIN DIAGRAM
Elastic Limit (E.L.)

Maximum stress that may be developed

during a simple tension test such that
there is no permanent set or residual
deformation when the load is entirely
removed. Hook’s law is not valid after E.L.
and the numerical values of P.L. and E.L.
are usually identical.
Elastic & Plastic Ranges:
Region of the stress-strain diagram extending
from origin to the proportional limit or elastic limit
is called as elastic range. If the material is
unloaded within elastic range it will come back to
its original shape without any permanent plastic
deformation. The region extending from P.L. to
the point of fracture or failure is called as plastic
range.
 Modulus of Elasticity (E)

It is the ratio of the unit stress to the unit strain and it is

determined as the slope of the straight line from zero to
proportional limit from the stress-strain diagram.

The stress strain linear relationship was discovered by

Robert Hook in 1676 and is known as Hook’s Law. It is
mathematically represented by the following equation;
=EЄ
Where, E is termed as the Modulus of Elasticity or Young’s
Modulus with units of stress. For Mild Steel, E ~ 200 GPa
(29x106 Psi)
 Yield Point (Y.P.)
A point on the stress strain curve after which there is an increase in
strain with no significant increase in stress is called as yield point.
The phenomenon is called as yielding. The stress corresponding to
the Y.P. is known as the yield strength of the material which if
represented in Ksi (Kips per Square Inch) gives the Grade of steel.
The yield stress is also known as PROOF STRESS.

The stress may actually decreases momentarily resulting in upper

and lower yield points.

The yield point during a simple tension test can be observed by :

1. Halting of machine
2. Drop of beam
3. Offset Method
4. Luder line method
5. Specific Strain method
 Offset Method
For the materials that do not have well
defined yield point, yield strength is
determined by offset method. This
consists of drawing a line parallel to the
initial tangent of the stress strain diagram
at 0.2% (0.002 m/m or in/in) strain.
Offset Method for the determination of Yield
Strength
 Tensile/Ultimate Strength
Maximum or highest ordinate (Stress) on
the stress-strain diagram is called as the
tensile or ultimate strength of the sample.
It is commonly considered as the
maximum strength of the material.
Rupture/Fracture/Breaking Strength
“Rupture strength or “Breaking strength” is
the stress at failure. Rupture strength is
always less than the ultimate strength.
For brittle materials, the ultimate and
rupture strength are almost the same.
 Strain Hardening Zone
If a ductile material can be stressed
considerably beyond the yield point
without failure, the material is said to be
“strain hardened”. It is a zone after yielding
when the particles of material rearrange
themselves and start taking load again, so
stress starts increasing. This is true for
many structural metals.
 Necking or Narrowing

Localized decrease in cross sectional area of the sample after

the ultimate strength is called “Necking”. This continues up to
rupture/failure.

Due to necking (Cup & Cone formation), the cross sectional

area is reduced and hence actual rupture strength can be
obtained by dividing the rupture load with actual rupture area.

So, the point of actual rupture strength will obviously be higher

than the rupture strength on the stress-strain diagram because
the rupture area is less than the original cross sectional area of
the sample.
Necking or Narrowing
 Modulus of Resilience (M.O.R.)
Resilience: The ability of a material to absorb
energy in the elastic range (i.e. without
permanent deformation) is called as resilience.
Modulus of Resilience is the amount of work
done on a unit volume of material as a simple
tensile force is increased from zero to
proportional limit (P.L.). It is calculated as the
area under the stress-strain diagram from zero
to P.L. (Units: Psi or MPa)
Modulus of Toughness (M.O.T.)
Toughness: The ability of a material to absorb
energy in the plastic range (i.e. permanent
deformation) is called as toughness.
Modulus of Toughness is the amount of work
done on a unit volume of material as a simple
tensile force is increased from zero to the failure
of the specimen. It is calculated as the total area
under the stress-strain diagram. (Units: Psi or
MPa)
 Residual Strain
When Material is loaded beyond the
elastic limit then after unloading the
material does not come back to its original
position and there is a permanent set in
the specimen, which is called “Residual
Strain”.
SPECIFIC STRENGTH:
Ratio of ultimate/tensile strength to the
specific weight (weight per unit volume)
is called as specific strength. (Units:
Length)

SPECIFIC MODULUS:
Ratio of Modulus of Elasticity/Young’s
Modulus to the specific weight is called
as specific modulus. (Units: Length)
Elasticity:
“The ability of the material to regain its original
shape and size after the removal of load”. The
elastic strain is reversible change in the
dimensions of the body.

Plasticity
“The property of material by virtue of which it
retains the shape given to it”. Plastic strain is
deformation or change in dimensions which is
irreversible and remains in after the load has
been removed.
1. Percentage elongation
“The change in length per unit original
length expressed in percentage”

% Elongation = (Lf-Lo)*100/ Lo
Lo = Original Length and
Lf = Final Length
 2. % Reduction in Area:
“Reduction in cross-sectional area per
unit original area expressed in
percentage”.
% Reduction in X-Area = (Af – Ao)*100/ Ao

Ao = Original X-Area and

Af = Actual Rupture Area (X-Area at
failure)
Ductile and Brittle Materials:
Materials having a relatively large tensile
strain up to the point of rupture or failure
are called as ductile materials. e.g.
Structural steel, Aluminum, etc.

Whereas, the materials having a relatively

small tensile strain up to the point of
rupture are called as brittle materials. e.g.
Cast Iron, Concrete, etc
Fracture Surfaces for Ductile-Brittle Objects
Brittle Material Ductile Material
Conclusions
Thanks