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MECHANICS OF SOLID LAB COPY

Submitted to:

 Engr. Azhar Shehzad

Submitted by:

 Khalid Yousaf
 BSCE- 01113094
 Sec “ C ”

Department:

CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

THE UNIVERSITY OF LAHORE

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 LIST OF EXPERIMENTS:

1. LAYOUT OF MECHANICS OF SOLIDS LAB

2. STUDY OF SMALL INSTRUMENTS

3. TO PERFORM CHARPY’S IMPECT TEST ON GIVEN SAMPLE

3(a) IN TENSION
3(b) IN BENDING

4. TO PERFORM COMPRESSION TEST ONWOODEN CUBE

4(a) PARALLEL TO FIBERS

4(b) PERPENDICULAR TO FIBERS

5. TO PERFORM TENSION TEST ON HOT ROLLED MILED STEEL/STEEL

BAR (ASTMA615/615M)

6. TO PERFORM FLEXURAL TEST ON WOODEN BEAM

7. STUDY OF COLUMN BUCKLING

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EXPERIMENT NO: 01

Lay out of mechanics of solids lab.

LAYOUT:

“Plan view of laboratory showing positions of different machines present in

lab.

PURPOSE:

To become familiar with machines and accessories of laboratory and know

about the exact position of machines.

LAB ACCESSORIES:

1) Charpy’s impact testing machine.

2) Drying creep & shrinkage apparatus.
3) Step table.
4) Fatigue testing machine.
5) Load cells.
6) Table.
7) Steel cabinet.
8) Wooden counter.
9) Universal testing machine (UTM).
10) Compression testing machine.

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 WHITE BOARD
STEP BOARD 1
3 2

SITTING AREA

4 RC COLOUM RC COLOUM
9

NORTH 8
5

7
6
LAYOUT OF STRENGTH OF MATERIALS LAB

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UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE:

A machine that can perform pulling or pushing test is called universal

testing machine..

Some of tests are,

 Tension test.
 Compression test.
 Bending test.
 Shear test.

(50 TON) UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE:

This machine can perform different steel test like,

 Tension test.
 Compression test.
 Bending test.
 Shear test.
 Punching test.

It has two parts upper pot and lower post. Its upper post is fixed whereas
lower post is moveable. It can perform all sorts of tests by re arranging its
bed.

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 Its maximum capacity as mentioned in its name is 50 Ton. It is china
manufactured machine. It is operated electrically.

CHARPY’S IMPECT TESTING MACHINE:

It is used to access strength against impact load. Its working

principal is based on the simple pendulum. This machine can
perform impact test of bending and tension.

It is manually operated and manufactured by Charpy from England.

FATIGUE TESTING MACHINE:

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 It is use to access the resistance capacity again and again.This is a
rotating beam type machine in which load is applied in reversed bending
fashion. It works electrically.

STUDY OF STEEL SAMPLES:

There are two types of steel.

 Hot rolled steel

 Cold worked steel

a) HOT ROOLED STEEL:

Hot rolled steel has two types,

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 i. Plain steel
ii. Deformed steel

This steel gives warning before failure. This steel is ductile.

b) COLD WORKED STEEL:

Cold worked steel is also called Tor steel. It gives no warning before
failure. It is high carbon steel.

EXPERIMENT NO: 02

STUDY OF SMALL INSTRUMENTS

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OBJECTIVES:

 To get familiar with small instruments in several civil engineering and

application.
 To measure the diameter, linear changes in small objects.
1. VERNIER CALLIPER:

PURPOSE:

 It is used to measure internal diameter, external diameter, length of

small objects and thickness of small objects.

PARTS:

a) Main scalee)Lower jaws

b) Vernier scale
c) Upper jaws
d) Depth measuring stem

Its upper jaws for measuring of internal diameter and Lower jaws for
measuring of external diameter and length of objects. Depth measuring
stem is for measuring the depth of liquid container.

LEAST COUNT:

“The smallest measurement that canmeasured from a instrument is called

least count”.Least count of main scale = 1mmLeast count of vernier scale
= 0.05mm

2. MICROMETER SCREW GAUGE:

PURPOSE:

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  It is use to find external diameter, length up to 25mm/1 inch.
 To measure the dimensions with greater accuracy.

PARTS:

a) Main scale (horizontal scale)

b) Minor scale (micrometer scale)
c) Frame and lock nut
d) Ratchet knob
e) Anvil and spindle

Anvil

The shiny part that the spindle moves toward, and that the sample rests against.

Lock nut / lock-ring

The lever that one can tighten to hold the spindle stationary, such as when
momentarily holding a measurement.
Spindle
The shiny cylindrical part that the thimble causes to move toward the anvil.
LEAST COUNT:

Least count = pitch of instrument/horizontal length = 0.5/50 = 0.01mm

Complete one revolution of the circle scale on minor scale. The circular
scale covers a distance of 0.5mm.

3. DEFLECTION GAUGE:

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 “Any of the displacement from the neutral axis of the member is referred as
deflection”

PURPOSE:

To check the deflection of any structural member like beam, column and
slab etc. on specified load

PARTS:

a. Smaller circular scale

b. Larger circular scale

LEAST COUNT:

Least count of smaller scale = 1mm

Least count of larger scale = 0.01m

4. EXTENSOMETER GAUGE:

OBJECTIVES:

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To get familiar with the extensometer gauge and to check the process of
measuring deflection in members with deflection gauge.

PURPOSE:

 It is an attachment to Universal Testing Machine and Tensile

Testing Machines, used to find out the proof stress at the
required elongation percentage.
 It measures the elongation of a test piece on load for the set
gauge length.
 The maximum elongation measured up to 3 mm.
 Adjustable gauge length from 30 mm to 120 mm
 Round specimen from 1 mm to 20 mm dia and flat specimen
from 1 mm to 20 mm thickness can be accommodated.

LEAST COUNT:

Least count of extensometer = 0.01mm

5. INSIDE CALIPER:

It is used to measure the internal diameter / sizes of small objects. It is like

divider. It has no least count.

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  The upper caliper in the image (at the right) requires manual adjustment
prior to fitting, fine setting of this caliper type is performed by tapping the
caliper legs lightly on a handy surface until they will almost pass over the
object.
 The lower caliper in the image has an adjusting screw that permits it to be
carefully adjusted without removal of the tool from the work piece.
6. OUTSIDE CALIPER:

It is used to measure the external diameter / sizes of small objects. It is

also like divider. It has no least count.

7. SPRING DIVIDER:

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TYPES AND USES:

Dividers  are  instruments  used  for  measuring  distances between two

points, transferring or comparing measurements  directly  from  a  rule,  or
for  scribing  an arc, radius, or circle.

PARTS:
A spring divider consists of two sharp points at the end of  straight  legs,
held  apart  by  a  spring  and  adjusted  by screw.

COMENTS:

 After this experiment we now know all small instruments their working and
use in engineering.

EXPERIMENT NO: 03

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 TO PERFORM IMPECT TEST ON CHARPY’S TESTING MACHINE

OBJECTIVES:

To perform impact test and finding the modulus of toughness in tension as

well as in bending.

APPARATUS:

Charpy’s steel impact testing machine and steel specimen

RELATED THEORY:

There are following types of load

a) Dead load
b) Live load
c) Impact load

DEAD LOAD:

Self-weight plus super impose load is called dead weight. Weight of roofs
for column is dead weight.

LIVE LOAD:

If a person or thing is moving with respect to other things than the load of a
person or thing is called live load

IMPECT LOAD:

Heavy weight for a shot time is called impact load

for example: earth quake

TOUGHNESS:

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 Ability of material to resist external forces

Amount of energy absorbed in plastic range P.E = m.g.h.

MODULUS OF TOUGHNESS:

Amount of energy absorbed per unit volume of material as it is noted from

zero of failure load until of modulus of toughness.

Its units are N/mm^2 = 1 Mpa

DIAGRAM:

h1-hoh2-ho

Ө1-90 Ө2-90

Ө1 Ө2

h1 ho h2

h2-ho = R sin (Ө2 -90)

= -R cos Ө2

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 h1-ho = R sin (Ө1 -90)

= -R cos Ө1

m= weight of fork = 22.4 kg

E1= mgh1

E2= mgh2

Change in energy= E = E1 – E2

h2 = ho+ R cosӨ2

h1 = ho+ RcosӨ1

so

E = mg (ho-R cosӨ1 ) – (ho-R cosӨ2 )

E = mgR (cos Ө2 - cosӨ1)

This is absolute energy

 Observations & Calculations:

Height Attain By
E = mgR (cos Ө2 - cos Ө1) Volume M.O.T
Specime Fork
n N
Ө1 Ө2 N.mm mm3
mm 2
Bending 141° 124° 36399.34 5297.8 6.87

Tension 141° 06° 295878.17 4137.126 71.51

CALCULATIONS:

Given data:

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 (bending)

m = 22.4kg

g = 9.81 m/sec2

R = 760mm

Ө1 = 141˚

Ө2 = 124˚

Solution:

E = mgR (cos Ө2 - cos Ө1)

E = 22.4 x 9.81 x760 x (cos124˚ - cos141˚)

ENERGY=E = 36399.34 N-mm

Volume = L x b x d

= 60.6 x 9.35 x 9.35 = 5297.8 mm3

Energy
M .O .T =
Volume

36399.34
M .O .T =
5297.8

= 6.87 N/mm2

(Tension):

Ө1 = 141˚

Ө2= 06˚

E = 22.4 x 9.81 x760 x (cos06˚ - cos141˚)

ENERGY=E = 295878.17

π d2 x ENERGY
Volume= L M.O.T =
4 VOLUME

M.O.T = 71.51 N/mm2

COMENTS:

 By doing this experiment we find the toughness of given specimen.

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  Toughness is material property.
 We check that how this machine works for bending and tension.
 Charpy’s testing machine determines the amount of energy
absorbed by a material during fracture. This absorbed energy is a
measurement of a given material’s toughness.

EXPERIMENT NO: 04

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 TO PERFORM TENSION TEST ON HOT ROLLED PLAIN STEEL BARS
(ASTM615/615-M).

OBJECTIVES:

1) To study the stress strain behavior of mild steel.

2) To determine different properties of steel ( i.e. yield stress, tensile
stress, modulus of elasticity. Ductility etc.)
3) To check the adequacy of specimen as per ASTM 615-M.

APARATUS:

1) Universal testing machine

2) Steel specimen

3) Vernier caliper

RELATED THEOREY:

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 Behavior of stress and strain of mild steel is shown in below graph.

a) Proportional limit (P.L):

Maximum stress that may be developed during a simple tension test
such that stress is a linear function of strain is called proportional limit.
Hook’s law is not valid after proportional limit.

b) Elastic limit (E.L):

Maximum stress that may be developed during a simple tension test
such that there is no permanent set or residual deformation when the
load is entirely removed is called elastic limit.

Numerical values of elastic and proportionality limit are usually identical.

c) Yield point/ yield strength (Y.P):

The yield is the point after which there is an increase in strain of
material without any significant increase in stress. In fact in actual
practice after yield point, the load may be actually decrease, giving rise
to two yield points i.e. upper yield point and lower yield point.

d) Strain hardening:

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 If the ductile material can be stressed considerable beyond the yield
point without failure, the material is said to be strain hardened. it is the
zone after yielding when the particles of material rearrange themselves
and start taking load, so stress starts increasing.

e) Ultimate strength:
Maximum or the highest stress ordinate on the stress-strain curve is
called ultimate strength. It is considered as the maximum strength of
the sample.

f) Necking :
At about the ultimate stress point, the cross-sectional area of the
specimen begins to decrease in a localized region. This phenomenon is
called necking and it continues until the specimen breaks at a stress
value referred to as the fracture stress. Ultimately a cup arrangement is
formed. This phenomenon is called necking.

Necking

g) Apparent/ Normal rupture strength:

Rupture strength is the stress at failure. It is always less than the
ultimate strength. For the brittle material the ultimate and rupture
strength are almost same.

Normal/ Apparent rupture strength is obtained by dividing stress by

nominal area of the bar.

h) Actual rupture strength:

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 Actual rupture strength is obtained by dividing stress at rupture by
actual area of the bar at rupture.

i) Modulus of elasticity (E):

The slope of stress-strain curve is the young’s modulus, E, of the
material. The definition of young’s modulus is valid provided the stress
in the proportional limit of the material.

j) Resilience:
The ability of the material to absorb energy in the elastic region is called
resilience.

k) Modulus of resilience (M.O.R):

It is the amount of work done on a unit volume of material as a simple
tensile force is increased from zero to proportional/ elastic limit.

It is denoted by calculating area under

stress-strain curve from zero up to
proportional limit.

l) Toughness:
The ability of material to absorb energy in the plastic range is called
toughness.

m)Modulus of toughness (M.O.T):

Strain per unit volume up to rupture is called the modulus of toughness.

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 Modulus of toughness

It is determined by calculating total area under stress-strain curve i.e.

from zero up to the rupture point.

n) Residual strain:
When material is loaded beyond the elastic limit then after unloading
the material does not come back to its original position and there is a
permanent set in the specimen. Which is called “Residual strain”?

o) Specific strength:
Ratio of ultimate/tensile strength to specific weight (weight per unit
volume): is called as specific strength. (Units: length)
p) Specific modulus:
Ratio of modulus of Elasticity/young’s modulus to the specific weight is
called as specific modulus. (Units: length)

Methods to observe yield point in a tension test:

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 The yield point during simple tension test can be observed by the following
method;

a) Haulting of machine:
In this method the machine stop for some time showing yielding stage. It’s
the best method for observing yielding in ductile material.

b) Offset method:
For material that doesn’t have any well-defined yield point, yield strength is
determined by offset method. This method consists of drawing a line
parallel to stress-strain curve at 0.2% strain. Where this intersects the
stress-strain curve, at that point stress ordinate is recorded as proof stress.
This proof stress is taken as yield stress.

c) Specific strain method:

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 In this method, yielding will occur at specific strain and according to
standard, it is 0.5%.

Yield stress = stress at 0.5% strain

d) Luder’s line method:

Luder’s is the name of the researcher who developed this method. According to
him at the time of yielding, a pattern of lines appear on the polished/painted
surface. These lines roughly intercept at right angle to each other and
approximately 450to the longitudinal axis of the bar.

Ductile and Brittle material:

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 Material having a relative large tensile strain up to the point of rupture or
failure is called as ductile materials.E.g. cast iron, concrete, etc.

Whereas, the materials having a relatively small tensile strain up to the

point of rupture are called as brittle materials. E.g. cast iron, concrete, etc.

Brittle and Ductile behavior

Percentage elongation:
“The change in length per unit original length expressed in percentage”
Lo−Lf
ε= X100
Lo

Lo = original length and Lf = final length

Percentage reduction in area:

“Reduction in cross-sectional area per unit original area expressed in
percentage”
Ao−Af
ε= X100
Ao

Ao = original X-sectional area and Af = Actual X-area at failure

elongation−guage length
% age Elongation= X100
guage length

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 EXPERIMENT NO 04

“TO PERFOM A SIMPLE TENSION TEST ON A HOT ROLLED STEEL

BAR. (ASTM 615/615M)
OBJECTIVES:-
 TO STUDY THE STRESS~STRAIN BEHAVIOR OF MILD STEEL.
 TO DETERMINE THE DIFFERENT MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF
STEEL
FOR EXAMPLE YIELD STRENGTH, TENSILE STRENGTH, MODULUS
OF ELASTICITY, DUCTILITY ETC.
 TO CHECK THE ADEQUACY OF SPECIMEN AS PER ASTM 615M.

APPARATUS:-
1) UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE

2) STEEL SPECIMEN.

3) VERNIER CALIPER

RELATED THEORY:-
STRESS_STRAIN DIAGRAM:

According to HOOK’S LAWStress is directly

proportional to the strain, but in concrete it follow upto some extend

a) PROPORTIONAL LIMIT:
Stress has linear combination with strain. Hook’s law is not
valid after proportional limit. Numerical values of elastic and proportionality limit
are usually identical.

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 STRESS~STRAIN DIAGRAM

b) ELASTIC LIMIT:
The maximum stress that can be applied to a metal without
producing permanent deformation. If the stresses are not too great the material
will return to its original shape and dimension when the external stress is
removed.

c) YIELD POINT:
It is point after which there is an increase in strain of the material
without any significant increase of stress.at this point there is redistribution of
particles of material.

d) STRAIN HARDENING ZONE:

If the ductile material can be stress considerably beyond the
yeild point without failure, the material s said to be strain hardened. It is the zone
after yielding when the particles of material rearrange themselves and start
taking load again.

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 e) ULTIMATE STRENGTH:-
Maximum or highest ordinate on the stress-strain curve is
called ultimate strength. It is maximum strength of the sample.

f) NECKING:-
At about the ultimate stress point, the cross sectional area of the
specimen begins to decrease in a localized region. This phenomenon is called
necking.

g) APPARENT/ NORMAL RUPTURE STRENGTH:

Rupture strength is the stress at failure. It is always less than the
ultimate strength. For the brittle material the ultimate and rupture
strength are almost same. Normal/ Apparent rupture strength is
obtained by dividing stress by nominal area of the bar

h) ACTUAL RUPTURE STRENGTH:-

Actual rupture strength is obtained by dividing stress at rupture by
actual are of the bar at rupture.

i) MODULUS OF ELASTICITY:-
It is the slope of stress-strain curve within the proportional limit of the material.

j) RESILIENCE:-
Ability of the material to absorb energy in the elastic region.

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 k) MODULUS OF RESILIENCE:-
It is amount of work done on a unit volume of material, as simple tensile
force is increased from zero to proportional limit. It is determined by
calculating area under stress-strain curve from zero upto proportional limit.

l) TOUGHNESS:-
The ability of the material to absorb energy in the plastic range.

m)MODULUS OF TOUGHNESS:-
Strain per unit volume up to rupture is called the modulus of toughness.
It is determined by calculating total area under stress-strain curve, from
zero to rupture point.

n) RESIDUAL STRAIN:-
When material is loaded beyond the elastic limit then after unloading the
material does not come back to its original position and there is a
permanent set in the specimen.

METHODS TO OBSERVE YIELD POINT IN A SIMPLE TENSION TEST:-

The yield point during simple tension test can be observed by the following methods.

i. HAULTING OF MACHINE:-
In the method the machine stop for sometime showing yielding stage.
It’s the best method for observing yielding in ductile materials.

ii. OFFSET METHOD:-

For material that doesn’t have any well-defined yield point, yield strength is
determined by offset method. This method consists of drawing a line parallel to
stress-strain curve at 0.2% strain. Where this intersects the stress-strain curve, at
that point stress ordinate is recorded as proof stress. This proof stress is taken
as yield stress.

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 iii. SPECIFIC STRAIN METHOD:-
In this method, yielding will occur at specific strain and according
to standard, it is 0.5%.
Yield stress = stress at 0.5% strain

iv. LUDER’S LINE METHOD:-

Luder’s is the name of the researcher who developed this
method. According to him at the time of yielding, a pattern of lines
appear on the polished/painted surface. These lines roughly
intercept at right angle to each other and approximately 450to the
longitudinal axis of the bar.

o) DUCTILE MATERIAL:-
Material having a relative large tensile strain up to the point of rupture or
failure is called as ductile materials.e.g. Cast iron, Concrete, etc

p) BRITTLE MATERIAL:-
Materials having a relatively small tensile strain up to the point of rupture
are called as brittle materials. E.g. cast iron, concrete, etc

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 q) PERCENTAGE ELONGATION:-
“The change in length per unit original length expressed in percentage”
Lo−Lf
ε= X100
Lo
Lo = original length and Lf = final length

r) PERCENTAGE REDUCTION IN AREA:-

“Reduction in cross-sectional area per unit original area expressed in
percentage”

Ao−Af
ε= X100
Ao

Ao = original X-sectional area and Af = Actual X-area at failure

elongation−guage length
% age Elongation= X100
guage length

PROCEDURE:-

First we clean the SPECIMEN (MILD STEEL). Then we measure the diameter of the
specimen at three different sections by VERNIER CALIPER. Calculate the original
diameter by taking average of three readings.
The tension test specimen shall be gage marked with a center punch with an 50mm
gage length(The measurement of strain is the measurement of the displacement
between two points some distance apart. This distance is the GAGE LENGTH) near the
middle and 75mm near the edge of the specimen. The purpose of the gage mark is to
provide reference points for determination of the percent of elongation. Punch marks
shall be light, sharp, and accurately spaced.
It is the function of the gripping or holding device of the UNIVERSAL TESTING
MACHINE to transmit the load from the heads of the machine to the specimen under
test. The essential requirement is that the load shall be transmitted axially.
Gripping the specimen shall be restricted to the section outside the gage length. The
speed of the testing shall not be greater than that at which the load and behavior of the
specimen can be properly observed.
 Record the maximum load.
 Observe the decrease in load and neck formation on the specimen.
 Record the load at fracture and put off the machine.
 Remove the specimen. Observe the cup and cone formation at the fracture point.
Rejoin the two pieces, measure the final gauge length and the reduced diameter

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Determination of Tensile Properties – Yield Point –.
In this method and increasing load is applied to the specimen at a uniform rate. The
load at which there is a halt or hesitation of the load indicating pointer is noted and
termed the “yield point”. The stress at this point is computed and termed the yield
stress. Calculate the yield stress by dividing the load at the “yield point” by the
nominal cross-sectional area of the test specimen.

TENSILE STRENGTH – Calculate the tensile strength of the Deformed Bar by dividing
the maximum load the specimen sustains during a tension test by the original cross-
sectional area of the specimen. Nominal bar areas as specified in AASHTO M31 shall
be used in computations.

ELONGATION – To determine the percentage of elongation, fit the ends of the

fractured specimen elongation is the increase in length of the gage length, together
carefully and measure the distance between the gage marks to the nearest. The
expressed as a percentage of the original gage length. In reporting elongation values,
give both the percentage increase and the original gage length.

If any part of the fracture takes place outside of the middle half of the gage length
or in the punched or scribed mark within the reduced section, the elongation value
obtained may not be representative of the material. If the elongation measured
meets the minimum requirements specified, no further testing is needed.

However, if the elongation is less than the minimum requirements, discard the
specimen and retest a new specimen.

PRECAUTION:-

 Specimen should be clean.

 Diameter and gage lengths should be mark carefully.
 Clamp tight the specimen to the UTM jaws.
 Reading should be noted carefully.
 Keep distance from machine when test is performing.

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OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS:-

d =?
L = 45.4 cm
m = 1.53 Kg
ρ = 7850 kg/cm3
7850 = 1.53 /(A x 45.4)
(π/4) x d2 = 1.53/(45.4 x 7850)
d = 23.37 cm

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GRAPHS:-

35
36
 SUMMARY OF JOB

OBSERVATIONS:

INITIAL DIAMETER OF SPECIMEN D1 19mm

INITIAL GAUGE LENGTH OF SPECIMEN l 50mm
INITIAL X-SECTIONA AREA OF SPECIMEN A1 283.52mm2
ULTIMATE LOAD AT BREAKING F 84.28kN
FINAL LENGTH AFTER SPECIMEN BREAK L2 377mm
FINAL DIAMETER OF SPECIMEN D2 15.5mm
FINAL X-SECTIONAL AREA OF SPECIMEN A2 188.69mm2
DIAMETER OF CONE D3 14.4mm
DIAMETER OF CUP D4 16.6mm

CALCULATIONS:

ULTIMATE TENSILE STRENGTH 474.37MPa

PERCENTAGE ELONGATION 25.66%
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY 11.6867 MPa
YIELD STRESS 338.60 MPa
% AGE REDUCTION IN AREA 33.50%

COMMENTS:-

 In this experimental stress analysis we apply a given load and then measure the
strain on individual members of a structure or machine. Then we use the stress
strain relationships to compute the stresses in those members to verify that these
stresses remain within the allowable limits for the particular materials used.
 The main theme of this application note is aimed at strain measurements using
bonded resistance strain gages. We will introduce considerations that affect the
accuracy of this measurement and suggest procedures for improving it.

EXPERIMENT NO: 5

37
To perform compression test on wooden specimen when the
specimen is loaded
1. Parallel to grains 2. Perpendicular to grains

Objectives:

i. To determine compressive strength of wooden sample

ii. To determine modulus of elasticity and modulus of stiffness
iii. To study the anisotropic behavior of wood

Apparatus:

i. 50 Ton UTM
ii. Wooden cubes
iii. Vernier Calliper
iv. Deflection gauges

Related Theory:

Compressive Strength:

The maximum compressive stresses that can be developed in any member

are termed as compressive strength of that member.

Modulus of Elasticity: E

It is the ratio between unit stress and unit strain within the elastic limit .It
can be determined by measuring the slope of straight line from zero to
proportional limit in a stress strain diagram.

Modulus of stiffness:

The force required to produce unit deformation is called modulus of stiffness.

Isotropic materials:

38
 The materials showing same properties in different directions are called
isotropic materials e.g. steel.

Anisotropic materials:

The materials showing different properties in different directions are called

anisotropic materials .e.g. wood

Failure parallel to grains:

When the load is applied parallel to the grains the wooden sample will take
more load to fail. The ability of wood to take more loads parallel to the grains
before failure is because each fiber acts as a column to the applied load and
due to this column action the wooden sample will take more loads when
loaded parallel to the grains.

Failure perpendicular to grains:

When the load is applied perpendicular to the grains the wooden sample
takes comparatively less load as compared to when load is applied parallel to
grains. This is because the failure of single fiber will cause the failure of whole
specimen.

Note: The strength of wooden sample when the load is applied parallel to the
grains is about ten times more as compared to when the load is applied
perpendicular to the grains.

Procedure:

39
 i. Measure the Dimensions of the specimen length , width &height
ii. Place the specimen in UTM and apply load parallel to grains and
perpendicular to grains one by one
iii. Gradually keep on increasing the load

When loaded parallel to fibers when loaded perpendicular to fibers

iv. Observe the fracture load

v. Get the results from the Computer attached with UTM that are
Deflections corresponding to each load.

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS:-

READINGS WITH LOAD READINGS WITH LOAD

APPLIED PARALLELTO APPLIED PERPENDICULAR
40
FIBERS TO FIBERS
Plotting of curves:

41
 Draw stress strain curve for both specimens one by one and calculate max
compressive strength of both wooden cubes.

42
Conclusions & remarks:

i. Compare compressive strength of wooden cubes

43
 ii. Draw sketch of specimen before and after fracture and discuss the failure
mechanism.

Results:

MODULUS OF STIFFNESS 15721.44KN/m

(WHEN LOAD IS PARALLEL TO FIBERS)
MODULUS OF STIFFNESS 8548.49 KN/m
(WHEN LOAD IS PERPENDICULAR TO FIBERS)
STRENGTH AT RUPTURE POINT 38.1 Pa
(WHEN LOAD IS PARALLEL TO FIBERS)
STRENGTH AT RUPTURE POINT 86.3 Pa
(WHEN LOAD IS PERPENDICULAR TO FIBERS)

Comments:

 In our experiment wooden sample fails more easily when loaded

against perpendicular to fibers also in our wooden sample there was
a knot present and wooden sample fails firstly through this week
point.

Crack firstly produced at knot.

 While when loading is parallel to wooden sample fibers then fibers

endure load and come closer to each other layer by layer and can
bear much more load than perpendicular to fibers.

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 EXPERIMENT NO 06
To study the bending behavior of beam and to determine Modulus of Elasticity
and Modulus of Rupture

APPARATUS:
 50 TON UTM
 DEFLECTION GAUGE
 WOODEN BEAM

RELATED THEORY

SHEAR FORCE:
A force which tends to slide one part of section against the adjacent part
acting normal to the longitudinal axis and tangentially to the cross section is
called shear force.

Mathematically it is defined as the algebraic sum of all the vertical forces

on either side of the section.

BENDING MOMENT:-
Algebraic sum of all the moments located between a cross section and one
end of the structural member.
Bending moment that bends beam convex downward is positive and one
that bends beam convex upward is negative.

ELASTIC CURVE:-
The deflected shape of longitudinal axis of beam is called elastic curve.

MODULUS OF ELASTICITY:-
It is the ratio of unit stress to unit strain and it is determined as the slope of
the straight line from zero to proportional limit from stress strain diagram.
Modulus of elasticity is given by following relation:

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MODULUS OF RUPTURE:-
Maximum tensile bending stress that can be developed in a beam before
failure or it is the energy absorbed per unit volume when the specimen is loaded
from zero to failure load.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MODULUS OF TOUGHNESS (M.O.T) AND

MODULUS OF RUPTURE:-
Modulus of toughness can be determined by tension or compression test
however modulus of rupture is only determined for members subjected to
bending.

FLEXURAL FORMULA:-
The relationship between flexural stress and bending moment is expressed by
flexural formula and is given as
σ= My/I ------- (1)

Where

σ= Flexural stress

M=Bending moment at a particular section

Y=Distance of fiber from neutral axis

I=Moment of inertia

FLEXURAL EQUATION:-
As

σ= Ey/R

σ/y =E/R

And equation can be written as

σ/y= M/I

So flexural equation is

σ/y=E/R=M/I

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LOADING ARRANGEMENT:-
We want such type of loading arrangement that can produce pure moment
zone so that failure is only due to moment not due to combine effect of moment
and shear. This can only be achieved by two point loading arrangement.

TYPES OF FAILURE:

a) SHEAR FAILURE:
These failure generate at support and cause diagonal cracks.
b) FLEXURAL FAILURE:
These failure generate at the center and cause vertical cracks
c) FLEXURAL SHEAR FAILURE:
These failures generate between support and center and cause the
cracks which are vertical from the bottom and diagonal from the top.

PROCEDURE:-

 Measure length, width and depth of beam

 Mark the points on the beam showing position of support, point loads and
deflection gauge
 Set specimen in the machine according to two point loading
 Select suitable loading interval and apply loading gradually 0.5 to 6 tons
 At approximate 0.5 tons remove the deflection gauge and keep on
applying load until beam fails
 Note the failure load and calculate modulus of elasticity and modulus of
rupture

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:-

SR NO LOAD(TON LOAD(N DEFLECTION(mm)
) )
1 0 0 0
2 0.1 981 2.2
3 0.2 1962 4.22
4 0.3 2943 6.1
5 0.4 3924 7.82
6 0.5 4905 9.65

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 LOAD~DEFLECTION
6000
5000

LOAD(N)
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

DEFLECTION(mm)

Breaking Load =P=Modulus of Rupture= 3P.a/bh2

Modulus of Elasticity =3aL2/4bh3 x [P’/D]

PLOTTING OF GRAPH:-
Draw graph between Load and Deflection and get [P’/D] value from
the graph that is the slope of the straight line.

PRECAUTIONS:-
 Apply load gradually
 Remove gauges before failure
 Read the breaking load carefully

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 EXPERIMENT# 07
To perform hardness test on a given steel sample using Brinell hardness
testing machine.
PURPOSE:-

 To check hardness of sample.

 To check quality of sample in industry.
 It gives indirect measure of strength of material.

APPARATUS:-

 Brinell Hardness testing Machine.

 Steel ball indenters of 10 mm dia.
 Test specimen of different sample.
 Magnifying Glass.
 Vernier caliper.

Related theory:

HARDNESS:-
It is property of material by the virtue of which it resists the plastic
deformation, usually by penetration .However; the term hardness may also refer
to resistance to bending, scratching, abrasion or cutting.

METHODS OF MEASURING HARDNESS:-

a) Brinell hardness testing

b) Vicker’s hardness testing
c) Rockwell hardness testing

We will perform hardness test on Brinell hardness testing machine in this lab.

Brinell hardness testing:- BS (240-1961)

In this method a hardened steel bar is pressed into the surface under a
specified load for a fixed time and then released. Hardness which is calculated

49
as a number termed as the ratio of applied in Kg to the indenter contact area in
mm.

B.H.N=Load applied on indenter (Kg)/Contact area of indenter (mm)

Where
D=diameter of indenter
d= indentation diameter.

APPLICATIONS

Because of the wide test force range the Brinell test can be used on almost any
metallic material. The part size is only limited by the testing instrument's capacity.
INDENTERS:
For soft material
 10 mm steel ball indenter
For hard material
 10 mm carbide indenter
Load
 3000 kg force for hard material
 500 Kg or 1500 Kg for soft material

Time

 10 to 15 seconds for iron and steel

50
  30 seconds for all other materials

METHOD OF REPORTING HARDNESS

For example
75 HB 10/500/30
Where
75 = hardness value
H = Hardness
B = Brinell
10 = Diameter
500 = Force
30 = Time

PROCEDURE:-

 Place the specimen in Brinell Hardness testing Machine.

 Increase the load gradually.
 When load reaches to 10 KN start the stopwatch and record the
time interval for 20 sec.
 After 20 sec then release the load.
 Measure the dia indented on the surface of the specimen with
Vernier caliper.
 Repeat the above procedure 3 times for each specimen.
 Then calculate HB

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

Load applied on indenter (Kg)=F=

D=Diameter of indenter
d= Indentation diameter

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Observation and Calcultion:

DIAMETER OF MEAN
MATERIA LOAD INTNTATION(mm) INTENDATION
L (KN)
d1 d2 d3 DIA(mm) HB
BRASS 10 3.05 2.75 3.05 2.95 4.84

COPPER 10 3.1 3.9 3.95 3.65 2.52

RESULTS:-

MATERIAL HARDNESS BRINELL

COPPER 2.52 HB /10/10/20
BRASS 4.84 HB /10/10/20

COMMENTS:

 While experiment we increase the load gradually and measure dia accurately
then find HB for given sample separately.
 We use Vernier caliper for measuring intendation dia.

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