Chapter 2

Fundamentals of the Mechanical

Behavior of Materials

Outline
Introduction
Tensile test
True stress - true strain (flow curve)
mechanical properties:
- Resilience
- Ductility
- Toughness
- Hardness
1
 Introduction
 One of the oldest and most important groups of manufacturing
process is plastic deformation (shaping materials by applying
forces by various means), also known as deformation process, it
includes bulk deformation processes:
1. Forging
2. Rolling
3. Extrusion
4. Rod and wire drawing
 Sheet metal-forming processes (cutting, bending, drawing and
general press working).
 This chapter deals with mechanical behavior of the material during
plastic deformation

2
 Introduction
 In stretching a piece of metal to make an object such as
an automobile fender or a length of wire, the material is
subjected to tension.
 A solid cylindrical piece of metal is forged to make a
turbine disk, subjecting the material to compression.
 Sheet metal undergoes shearing stresses when for
example, a hole is punched through its cross section.
 In all these processes, the material is subjected to one
or more of the three basic modes of deformation,
namely, tension, compression and shear.

3
 Introduction

 The degree of the deformation to which the material is subjected is

defined as strain.

 For tension or compression its called, the engineering strain or

nominal strain :
e=

 Shear strain is defined as:

4
 Introduction
 In order to change the shape of an elements, or bodies,
forces must be applied to them as shown in the previous
slide.
 The determination of these forces as a function of strain
is an important aspect in the study of manufacturing
process
 A knowledge of these forces is essential in order:
1. To design the proper equipment (weather these equipment
applies tension, compressive or shearing forces) to be
used in manufacturing
2. To select tool and die materials for proper strength
3. To determine weather a specific metalworking operation
can be accomplished on certain equipment (shearing
equipment differs from tension one) 5
 Introduction
 Many materials, when in service, are subjected to forces or
loads.
 Airplane wing is constructed from aluminum alloy.
 An automobile axle from the steel.
• In such situations it is necessary to know the Service
conditions in order to determine characteristics of the
material and to design the member from which it is made
such that any resulting deformation will not be excessive
and fracture will not occur.
 The mechanical behavior of a material reflects the
response of the material to deformation from an applied
load or force.
 It is necessary to know the properties of materials.6
 Properties of Materials
• Mechanical Properties: strength, toughness,
ductility, hardness, elasticity, fatigue, and creep
• Physical Properties: density, specific heat,
thermal expansion and conductivity, melting point,
and electrical and magnetic properties
• Chemical Properties: oxidation, corrosion.
• Manufacturing Properties: castability (is the
ease of forming a quality casting), formability,
machinability, weldability, …

7
 PROPERTIES vs.
CHARACTERISTICS
PROPERTIES are basic (or essential)
elements or attributes, owned or
possessed by something. Usually, the
properties are concrete, intrinsic and
objective. 
CHARACTERISTICS are prominent
aspects, qualities or features of
something. Normally these are extrinsic
and subjective.  8
PROPERTIES vs. CHARACTERISTICS

 A characteristic is how something is; how it

behaves, appears, interacts, etc. A property is the
foundation of something. Properties never change.
They are the basic make up of something.
Properties are concrete; characteristics change.
For example, the characteristic of iron is that it is
hard while its property is that its melting point is
1811K.

9
 Oxidation versus Corrosion.
 They are essentially the same thing.
 Oxidation is the process where electrons (which bind atoms together to
create materials) are drawn away by free oxygen molecules which are
relatively unstable and looking for available electrons [rust forms on
metal].
 Corrosion is very similar, in that when material such as steel is exposed to
an environment that causes it to come into contact with either a liquid, or
dissimilar metal, a galvanic reaction occurs where molecules seek to find a
balance between unequal numbers of electrons, the material giving up
more electrons tends to show a greater rate of corrosion. iron's major
drawback as a construction material is that it reacts with moist air (in a
process called corrosion) to form the flaky

10
 Concepts of tests
 The mechanical behavior may be ascertained by a simple
stress–strain test.
 The test is conducted for metals at room temperature.
 Destructive test (tests are carried out to the specimen's
failure, in order to understand a specimen's structural
performance or material behavior under different loads)
 There are three principal ways in which a load may be
applied:
 Tension
 compression
 Shear
 In engineering practice many loads are torsional rather than
pure shear 11
Concepts of tests

12
 Engineering Stress
• Tensile stress, : • Shear stress, :
Ft Ft F

Area, A Area, A Fs

Fs
Ft
F
= s F Ft
Ft lb N
= = 2f or 2
Ao
Ao in m
original area
before loading
 Stress has units:
N/m2 or lbf/in2
Chapter 6 - 13
 Engineering Strain
• Tensile strain: • Lateral strain:
/2
L
   L 
Lo Lo wo
wo

L /2
• Shear strain:

x  = x/y = tan 

y 90º - 
Strain is always
90º dimensionless.
Adapted from Fig. 6.1 (a) and (c), Callister 7e. Chapter 6 - 14
 Common States of Stress
• Simple tension: cable
F F
Ao = cross sectional
area (when unloaded)
F
  
Ao
Ski lift(photo courtesy
• Torsion (a form of shear): drive shaft P.M. Anderson)

M Fs Ao 
Ac
Fs
 
Ao
M
2R Note:  = M/AcR here.
Chapter 6 - 15
 OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (1)
• Simple compression:

Ao

Canyon Bridge, Los Alamos, NM

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

F Note: compressive
Balanced Rock, Arches  structure member
National Park
(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
Ao

Chapter 6 - 16
OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (2)
• Bi-axial tension: • Hydrostatic compression:

Pressurized tank Fish under water (photo courtesy

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
P.M. Anderson)
 > 0

z > 0 h< 0

Chapter 6 - 17
 Tension
 One of the most common mechanical stress–strain
tests is performed in tension.
 The tension test can be used to ascertain several
mechanical properties of materials that are important
in design.
1. Strength: Yielding and yield strength.
2. Ductility,
3. Toughness,
4. Elastic modulus or Young’s modulus (E) (the
stiffness of the material)
5. Modulus of resilience (U) : (the specific energy that
the material can store elastically).
18
 Tensile-Test Specimen and Machine
• A specimen is deformed, usually to fracture, with a gradually
increasing tensile load that is applied uniaxially along the long axis
of a specimen.
• Normally, the cross section is circular, but rectangular specimens
are also used.
• The standard diameter is approximately 12.8 mm (0.5 in.)
• The standard length of the specimen is 50 mm
• Test is done according to American Society for Testing and
Materials (ASTM).

19
 Stress-Strain Testing
• Typical tensile test • Typical tensile
machine specimen

Adapted from
extensometer specimen Fig. 6.2,
Callister 7e.

gauge
length

Adapted from Fig. 6.3, Callister 7e. (Fig. 6.3 is taken from H.W.
Hayden, W.G. Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The Structure and Properties of
Materials, Vol. III, Mechanical Behavior, p. 2, John Wiley and Sons,
New York, 1965.) Chapter 6 - 20
Tensile-Test Specimen and Machine

Figure 2.1 (a) A standard tensile-test specimen before and after pulling, showing original and
final gage lengths. (b) A typical tensile-testing machine.

21
 Deformation (engineering)
 In materials science, deformation refers to any changes in the
shape or size of an object due to:-
 The first case can be a result of tensile (pulling) forces,
compressive (pushing) forces, shear, bending or torsion
(twisting).
 In the second case, the most significant factor, which is
determined by the temperature, is the mobility of the structural
defects such as grain boundaries, point vacancies, line and
screw dislocations, stacking faults and twins in both crystalline
and non-crystalline solids. The movement or displacement of
such mobile defects is thermally activated, and thus limited by
the rate of atomic diffusion
 Deformation is often described as strain.
22
 Types of deformation
 Depending on the type of material, size and geometry of the object,
and the forces applied, various types of deformation may result.
 The image to the right shows the engineering stress vs. strain diagram for
a typical ductile material such as steel. Different deformation modes may
occur under different conditions, as can be depicted using a deformation
mechanism map.

23
 Types of deformation
1. Elastic deformation

 This type of deformation is reversible. Once the forces

are no longer applied, the object returns to its original
shape.
 Elastomers and shape memory metals such as Nitinol
exhibit large elastic deformation ranges, as does rubber.
However elasticity is nonlinear in these materials.
 Normal metals, ceramics and most crystals show linear
elasticity and a smaller elastic range.
 Linear elastic deformation is governed by Hooke's law,
which states:
=E 24
 Types of deformation
 This relationship only applies in the elastic range and
indicates that the slope of the stress vs. strain curve
can be used to find Young's modulus (E).
 Engineers often use this calculation in tensile tests.
The elastic range  ends when the material reaches its
yield strength . At this point plastic deformation begins.
 Note that not all elastic materials undergo linear
elastic deformation; some, such as concrete, gray cast
iron, and many polymers, respond in a nonlinear
FASHION. For these materials Hooke's law is
inapplicabl
25
 Types of deformation
2. Plastic deformation
 This type of deformation is irreversible. However, an
object in the plastic deformation range will first have
undergone elastic deformation, which is reversible, so
the object will return part way to its original shape.
 Soft thermoplastics have a rather large plastic
deformation range as do ductile metals such as copper,
silver, and gold. Steel does, too, but not cast iron.
 Hard thermosetting plastics, rubber, crystals, and
ceramics have minimal plastic deformation ranges.
 An example of a material with a large plastic deformation
range is wet chewing gum, which can be stretched
dozens of times its original length. 26
 Types of deformation
 Under tensile stress, plastic deformation is characterized
by a strain hardening region and a necking region and
finally, fracture (also called rupture).
 During strain hardening the material becomes stronger
through the movement of atomic dislocations.
 The necking phase is indicated by a reduction in cross-
sectional area of the specimen.
 Necking begins after the ultimate strength is reached.
 During necking, the material can no longer withstand the
maximum stress and the strain in the specimen rapidly
increases. Plastic deformation ends with the fracture of
the material.
27
 Tensile Test
 When the load is applied, the
specimen elongates
proportionately to the load up to
the proportional limit ( this is the
range of linear elastic behavior).
 Continuing applying the load,
the material will continue to
deform elastically, although not
linearly, up to yielding point Y.
 When the load is removed
before the yield point is
reached, the specimen will
return to its original length.

28
 Elastic Deformation
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload

bonds
stretch

return to
initial

F
F Linear-
elastic
Elastic means reversible! Non-Linear-
elastic

Chapter 6 -
29
 Elastic Properties
• Macroscopic elastic strain is manifested as small
changes in the interatomic spacing and the stretching of
interatomic bonds. Thus, the magnitude of E is a
measure of the resistance to atoms separation, that is,
the interatomic bonding forces.

Chapter 6 - 30
 Tensile Test
 When increasing the load beyond
the yield point, the specimen
begins to yield; that is, it begins to
undergo plastic (permanent)
deformation, and the relationship
between the stress and strain is no
longer linear.
 For most materials the rate of
change of the slope of the stress-
strain curve from linear to non-
linear up to yield point is very
small, thus the determination of
the yield point, Y, can be difficult
 Yield point determination will be
discussed later
31
 Plastic Deformation (Metals)
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
bonds
stretch planes
& planes still
shear sheared

elastic + plastic plastic

F
F
Plastic means permanent! linear linear
elastic elastic

plastic
Chapter 6 - 32
 Tensile Test
 Its important to note that yielding dose not necessarily
mean failure.
 In the design of structures and load-bearing members,
yielding is not acceptable since it leads to permanent
deformation [ it will not do its functionality].
 However, yielding is necessary in metalworking
process, such as forging, rolling and sheet-metal forming
operations, where materials have to be subjected to
permanent deformation to develop the desired part
shape

33
 Tensile Test
 As the specimen
continuous to elongate
under increasing the
load beyond Y, its cross-
sectional area decreases
permanently and
uniformly throughout its
gage length.

34
 Tensile Test
 If the specimen is unloaded from a stress
level higher than Y, the curve follows a
straight line downward and parallel to the
original elastic slope as shown.
 Some fraction of the total deformation is
recovered as elastic strain.

 This elastic strain, which is regained

during unloading, corresponds to the
strain recovery.
 If the load is reapplied yielding will again
occur at the unloading stress level where
the unloading began.

35
 Plastic (Permanent) Deformation
(at lower temperatures, i.e. T < Tmelt/3)

• Simple tension test:

Elastic+Plastic
engineering stress,  at larger stress

Elastic
initially
permanent (plastic)
after load is removed

p engineering strain, 

plastic strain Adapted from Fig. 6.10 (a),

Callister 7e.

Chapter 6 - 36
 Loading and Unloading of Tensile-Test Specimen

slope
E = ……..

spring back
……………...
Note that, during unloading, in bending
the curve follows a path
parallel to the original elastic
slope.

Schematic illustration of the loading and

the unloading of a tensile- test specimen.
 Tensile Test
 As the load is further increased,
the curve eventually reaches a
maximum point and then begins
to decrease.
 This maximum point is known as
the tensile strength or ultimate
tensile strength (UTS) of the
material.
 UTS is thus a simple and practical
measure of the overall strength
of the material (strength of the
material that could withstand
without failure)
 Tensile Test
 When the specimen is loaded beyond
its UTS, it begins to neck and
elongation is no longer uniform.
 That is, the change in the cross-
sectional area of the specimen is no
longer uniform but is concentrated
locally in a neck formed in the
specimen (called necking).
 As the test progress, the engineering
stress drops further and specimen
finally fractures within the necked
region.
 The final stress level (marked by an x
in the figure) at fracture is known as
breaking or fracture stress.
 Mechanical Behaviour
As plastic deformation As more of the stress becomes
proceeds, the force concentrated in the neck,
increases due to work-hardening
………………. voids occur
formation of ………

These voids result in even

higher stress concentrations
and eventual fracture
 Tensile Strength, TS
• Maximum stress on engineering stress-strain curve.

TS
F = fracture or
y
ultimate
engineering

strength
stress

Typical response of a metal Neck – acts

as stress
concentrator
strain
engineering strain
• Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts.
• Polymers: occurs when polymer backbone chains are
aligned and about to break.
Chapter 6 - 41
Tensile Test

42
 Linear Elastic Properties
• Modulus of Elasticity, E (also known as Young's modulus):
E can be thought as the stiffness, or the resistance to elastic
deformation.

• Hooke's Law:
=E  F
E


Linear-
elastic F
simple
tension
test
Chapter 6 - 43
 Stress-Strain Curves
 Modulus of Elasticity or Young’s
modulus (E) = Slope

 The elongation of the specimen

is accomplished by a
Y
contraction of its lateral
dimension.
 The absolute value of the ratio
of lateral strain to longitudinal
strain is know as Poisson’s
ratio, v.
• E in Mpa 44
 Poisson’s Ratio
When pulled in tension (Z), a sample gets
longer and thinner, i.e., a contraction in
the width (X) and breadth (z)
if compressed gets fatter

Poisson’s ratio defines how much

strain occurs in the lateral directions
(x & y) when strained in the (z)
direction: lateral strain
 -
longitudinal strain
x y
  
z z
Typical values = 0.2 to 0.5
 Stress-Strain Curves
 The area under stress-stain
curve up to the yield point, Y,
of the material is known as the
modulus of resilience
 (U)= Area under stress – strain
curve up to the yield point (Y)

U : has the units of Energy per unit volume (N-m/ m ^3), and indicates
the specific energy that the material can store elastically. 46
 Resilience
Ability of material to absorb energy during elastic deformation and
then to give it back when unloaded.

Measured with Modulus of Resilience, Ur

Ur , is area under  -  curve up to yielding:
y


U r   d
0

Assuming a linear elastic region:

2

 y 
1 1
U r  2  y y  2  y    y
 E  2E
Units are J/m3
 Stress-Strain Curve

• Engineering stress
 = P/Ao

• Engineering strain
e = (l- lo) / lo

• Measures of ductility
% elongation
(lf - lo) / lo x 100
A typical stress- strain curve obtained
from a tension test, showing various % Reduction area
features.
(Af - Ao) / Ao x 100
 Engineering Stress-Strain
Engineering stress --- the ratio of the applied
load P to the original cross-sectional area A0
P
 Engineering Stress (σ) = A0
(l  l0 )
 Engineering Strain (e) = l0

49
 Engineering Stress-Strain

 Engineering Strain =

(l  l0 )
e
l0

50
 Mechanical Properties of Various Materials
at Room Temperature
TABLE 2.2 Mechanical Properties of Various Materials at Room Temperature
Elongation
in 50 mm
Metals (Wrought) E (GPa) Y (MPa) UTS (MPa) (%)
Aluminum and its alloys 69–79 35–550 90–600 45–4
Copper and its alloys 105–150 76–1100 140–1310 65–3
Lead and its alloys 14 14 20–55 50–9
Magnesium and its alloys 41–45 130–305 240–380 21–5
Molybdenum and its alloys 330–360 80–2070 90–2340 40–30
Nickel and its alloys 180–214 105–1200 345–1450 60–5
Steels 190–200 205–1725 415–1750 65–2
Titanium and its alloys 80–130 344–1380 415–1450 25–7
Tungsten and its alloys 350–400 550–690 620–760 0
Nonmetallic materials
Ceramics 70–1000 — 140–2600 0
Diamond 820–1050 — — —
Glass and porcelain 70-80 — 140 —
Rubbers 0.01–0.1 — — —
Thermoplastics 1.4–3.4 — 7–80 1000–5
Thermoplastics, reinforced 2–50 — 20–120 10–1
Thermosets 3.5–17 — 35–170 0
Boron fibers 380 — 3500 0
Carbon fibers 275–415 — 2000–3000 0
Glass fibers 73–85 — 3500–4600 0
Kevlar fibers 62–117 — 2800 0
Note: In the upper table the lowest values for E, Y, and UTS and the highest values for elongation are for pure metals.
Multiply gigapascals (GPa) by 145,000 to obtain pounds per square in. (psi), megapascals (MPa) by 145 to obtain psi.
51
 True Stress and True Strain
 True stress --- is the ratio of the load (P) to the
actual (hence true) or instantaneous cross-section
area (A)
P
True Stress () =
A
 Where (A) is the instantaneous (true or actual)
cross-sectional area

52
 True Stress and True Strain
 In tension test, there will be a series of incremental tension
where, for each increment, the specimen is a little longer than
at the preceding stage. Thus, the true strain, ϵ, can be defined as

• True strain --- the elongation of the specimen in increments of

instantaneous change in length

l dl l
True Strain () = l0 l
 ln( )
l0

53
 True Stress and True Strain

 For small values of engineering strain, we have e = ϵ

 For larger values of strain, however, the values rapidly diverge

as seen the table above.

 As we have seen that, at small stains, the engineering and true

strains are very close to each other and, therefore, either one
can be used in calculations.
 However, for large strains encountered in metalworking, the true
strain should be used because it is the true measure of the
54
strain.
 True Stress and True Strain

 Since the volume of the

material specimen remains
constant in the plastic
region, thus the true strain
can be expressed as

l Ao Do 2 Do
  ln( )  ln( )  ln( )  2 ln( )
lo A D D
55
 Engineering Stress vs. True Stress
Since the actual cross-sectional area is reduced, use of the initial
area gives a lower value than the actual one (the ratio is Ao/Ac).
True stress
…….
True stress,  = P/Ac
– P: load Engineering stress
– Ac: current area …….………

True strain,  = ln (lc/lo)
- lc: current length
- lo: original length

Even though the true stress-strain curve gives a more accurate picture of
the breaking strength of a material, it is difficult to obtain measurements
of the actual area in real-time.
Usually, the reported values are the engineering stress.
True fracture strength > tensile strength
 but the engineering  -  diagram does not show this
 True Stress- Strain Curves

 The relationship between engineering and true

values for stress and strain can now be used to
construct true stress-true strain curves.
 How???????
Construction of True Stress-True Strain Curve
(a) Load-elongation curve in tension
testing of a stainless steel specimen.
(b) Engineering stress-engineering strain
curve, drawn from the data in Fig. a.
(c) True stress-true strain curve, drawn
from the data in Fig. b.

Note that this curve has a

positive slope, indicating that
the material is becoming
stronger as it is strained.

(d) True stress-true strain curve

plotted on log-log scale, drawn
from data in fig. c and based on
the corrected curve in Fig. c. The
correction is due to the triaxial
state of stress that exists in the
necked region of a specimen
 True Stress- Strain Curves
 A typical true stress-true strain curve is shown
 Such curve is typically approximated by the
equation

 The above equation indicates neither

the elastic region nor the yield point Y

 The strains at the yield point are very small ϵ

= e , the differences between the true yield
stress and engineering stress is negligible.
 The reason is that, at yielding, the differences
in the cross-sectional areas Ao and A is
negligible
 True Stress- Strain Curves

 If we plot the true stress-true strain curve on a log-log scale, we obtain

the figure shown to the right.
 The slope of this figure is n : is known as the strain-hardening exponent.

 It is similar to solve this equation by taking the log for

each side
log   log K  n log 
 Strength of coefficient K
 K is known as the
strength of
coefficient.
 Note that K is the
true stress at a true
strain of unity

 Note from the figure that the elastic strain is much smaller
than the plastic strain.
 Consequently, and although both effects exist, we will ignore
elastic strains in our calculations for forming process, thus the
plastic strain will be the total strain that the material
undergoes
 Flow stress Yf
 From the figure, Yf, is known
as the flow stress.
 The flow stress is defined as
the trues stress required to
continue plastic deformation
at a particular stain, ϵ1.
Flow stress is defined as the
instantaneous value
of stress required to continue
plastically deforming the material -
to keep the metal flowing. Flow
stress can also be defined as the
stress required to sustain 
plastic deformation at a particular
strain.,
 Flow stress Yf
 Flow stress is the stress required to sustain a certain plastic
strain on the material.
 In forming of materials, we are concerned with flow stress of
material being formed, as this affects the ability of material to
undergo deformation
 Factors such as strain rate, temperature, affect the flow
stress of materials.
 A simple power law expression for flow stress of a
material which does not show anisotropy can be
expressed as:

 where n is known as strain hardening exponent.

Chapter 6 -
 Flow stress Yf
 Higher strain hardening exponent values enhance the
flow stress. Similarly, flow stress is enhanced with
increase in strain rate during a plastic deformation
process.
 Effect of strain rate on flow stress becomes more
pronounced at higher temperatures.
 At higher temperatures [hot working], strain hardening
may not have effect on flow stress. However, during cold
working effect of strain on flow stress cannot be
neglected as the material gets work hardened .
 In such case, average flow stress can be determined
between two given strains.

Chapter 6 - 64
 Flow stress Yf

 Flow curve is the stress-strain curve for a material in the

plastic range. It describes material behavior in metal
forming. From flow curve, we can determine the flow
stress as

 K    n

 In forming processes, such as forging, the

instantaneous flow stress can be found from the flow
curve, as the stress required to cause a given strain or
deformation.

Chapter 6 - 65
 Flow stress Yf

 In Rolling, for example, the flow stress

considerably changes during the forming
process as the material gets work hardened
considerably. In such case, an average flow
stress is determined from the flow curve. The
average flow stress is given as:

Chapter 6 - 66
 True Stress & Strain

• Curve fit to the stress-strain response:

hardening exponent:
T  K T  
n n = 0.15 (some steels)
to n = 0.5 (some coppers)
“true” stress (F/A) “true” strain: ln(L/Lo)

Chapter 6 - 67
 Hardening
• An increase in y due to plastic deformation.


large hardening
y
1
y small hardening
0

Chapter 6 - 68
True Stress-True Strain
Curves

Figure 2.6 True stress-

true strain curves in
tension at room
temperature for various
metals. The curves start at
a finite level of stress: The
elastic regions have too
steep a slope to be shown
in this figure, and so each
curve starts at the yield
stress, Y, of the material.

69
 Typical Values for K and n at
Room Temperature
TABLE 2.3
K (MPa) n
Aluminum
1100–O 180 0.20
2024–T4 690 0.16
6061–O 205 0.20
6061–T6 410 0.05
7075–O 400 0.17
Brass
70–30, annealed 900 0.49
85–15, cold-rolled 580 0.34
Cobalt-base alloy, heat-treated 2070 0.50
Copper, annealed 315 0.54
Steel
Low-C annealed 530 0.26
4135 annealed 1015 0.17
4135 cold-rolled 1100 0.14
4340 annealed 640 0.15
304 stainless, annealed 1275 0.45
410 stainless, annealed 960 0.10
70
 Instability in Tension

 We have observed that once ultimate tensile strength is

reached, the specimen will begin to neck and thus
deformation is no longer uniform.
 This phenomena has important significance because
nonuniform deformation will cause part thickness
variation and localization in processing of materials,
particularly in sheet forming operation where the material is
subjected to tension.
 Numerically, it was found that the true strain at the onset
of necking is equal to the strain-hardening exponent (n).
 ϵT = n at the UTS

71
 Instability in Tension
 Note in figure, that the slope of the
load-elongation curve at UTS is
zero ( meaning that dp = 0).
 It is here that the instability begins;
that is, the specimen begins to neck
and can not support the load
because the cross-sectional area of
the necked region is becoming
smaller as the test progresses
Proof that ϵ = n ?????????????????
proof that the value of true strain
at the onset of necking is equal to
strain hardening exponent. Using
the relationships
 True Stress and True Strain

σT = σE(1+ ϵE )
ϵT = ln (1+ ϵE)

Not that ϵE = e
73
 Yield point determination
 Yielding point is determined as the
initial departure from linearity of
stress – strain curve.
 In such cases the position of this point
may not be determined precisely.
 As a consequence, a convention has
been established wherein a straight line
is constructed parallel to the elastic
portion of the stress–strain curve at
some specified strain offset, usually
0.002. The stress corresponding to the
intersection of this line is defined as the
yield strength σy
 The units of yield strength are MPa or psi

74
 Yield point determination
 Some steels (low carbon steel) and other
materials exhibit the tensile stress–strain
behavior as shown in Figure.
 The elastic–plastic transition is very well
defined and occurs in what is termed a yield
point phenomenon.
 At the upper yield point, plastic deformation is
initiated with an actual decrease in stress.
 Continued deformation fluctuates slightly
about some constant stress value, termed the
lower yield point.
 For metals that display this effect, the yield
strength is taken as the average stress that is
associated with the lower yield point.

75
 Yielding –Yield strength
• There are some materials (e.g., gray
cast iron, concrete, and many
polymers) for which this initial elastic
portion of the stress–strain curve is not
linear
• For this nonlinear behavior, either
tangent or secant modulus is
normally used. Tangent modulus is
taken as the slope of the stress–
strain curve at some specified level
of stress, while secant modulus
represents the slope of a secant
drawn from the origin to some
given point of the – curve. The
determination of these moduli is
illustrated in Figure
76
 Temperature Effects on Stress - Strain Curve
 Various factors have an influence on the shape of the stress-
strain curves.
 The first factor is temperature. Temperature usually
1. Lowers the modulus
of elasticity
2. Lowers yield stress
3. Lower ultimate
tensile strength
4. Increases ductility
and toughness

5. Temperatures also affects the strain-hardening exponent, n,

of most metals, in that n decreases with increasing
temperature 77
Temperature Effects on Stress - Strain Curve

Increasing temperature
 ductility and toughness
 yield stress and
the modulus of elasticity
n (strain hardening exponent)

 Work hardening, also known as

strain hardening or cold
working, is the strengthening
of a metal by plastic
deformation 78
 Strain rate
 Depending on the particular manufacturing operation, a
piece of material may be formed at speed ranges from
low to high.
 Some machines, such as hydraulic presses, form
materials at low speeds; others, such as mechanical
presses, form at high speeds.
 To simulate such differences, the test specimen can be
strained at a rate corresponding to that which the metal
will experience in the actual manufacturing process.
 Deformation rate (v) is typically defined as the speed at
which a tension test is being carried out such as m/s (ex:
student and balls)
 The strain rate ( such as 102 s-1, 104 s-1) is a function of
the specimen length 79
 Strain rate
 For example, let’s take two rubber bands, one of 20 mm
and the other of 100 mm in length, respectively, and
elongate them both by 10 mm within a period of 1 second.
 The engineering strain in the shorter specimen is 10/20 =
0.5 and in the longer is 10/100 = 0.1. thus the strain rates
are 0.5 s -1 and 0.1 s -1, respectively, with the short band
being subjected to strain rate five times higher than that
for long band ( although they are both being stretched at
the same deformation rate)
 There is a typical deformation rates and strain rates in
various metal working process

80
 Typical Ranges of Strain and
Deformation Rate in Manufacturing
Processes
TABLE 2.4
Deformation rate
Process True strain (m/s)
Cold working
Forging, rolling 0.1–0.5 0.1–100
Wire and tube drawing 0.05–0.5 0.1–100
Explosive forming 0.05–0.2 10–100
Hot working and warm working
Forging, rolling 0.1–0.5 0.1–30
Extrusion 2–5 0.1–1
Machining 1–10 0.1–100
Sheet-metal forming 0.1–0.5 0.05–2
-4 -2
Superplastic forming 0.2–3 10 -10

81
 Strain rate

 In order to simulate the actual metalworking process, the specimen in a

tension test can be strained at different rates

 Where v is the rate of deformation (Deformation speed),

for example, the speed of the jaws of testing machine in
which the specimen is clamped
 The effect of temperature and strain rate on the ultimate tensile strength of
aluminum.
 Typical effects of temperature and
strain rate on the ultimate tensile
strength of metals are shown the figure.
 It clearly indicates that increasing strain
rate increases ultimate tensile strength
[ strain-rate hardening]
 And that the sensitivity of the strength
to strain rate increases with
temperature. [Note that as
temperature increases, the slope
increases. Thus, tensile strength
becomes more and more sensitive to
strain rate as temperature increases].
 Note also that the sensitivity of the  The slope of these curves
strength to strain is relatively small at is called Strain-rate
room temperature. sensitivity exponent, m.
 The effect of temperature and strain rate on the ultimate tensile strength of
aluminum.

 The relationship is given by the equation above

 Where C is the strength coefficient, similar to K, m is strain-rate sensitivity exponent
 For cold working m values up to (0.05)
 For hot working (0.05-0.4)
 For superplastic material (0.3-0.85). Refers to capability of some material to under go84large
uniform elongation prior to failure
 The effect of temperature and strain rate on the ultimate tensile strength of
aluminum.
 The value of m decrease with metals with increasing strength.
 Experimental observations have shown that with higher m values,
the material stretches to a greater length before it fails, an indication
that necking is delayed with increasing m.
 Explain how ????????????????????
1. When necking is about to begin, the region’s strength with respect to
the rest of the specimen increases because of strain hardening.
2. However, the strain rate in the neck region is also higher than the
rest of the specimen because the material is elongating faster there.
3. Since the material in the necked region is becoming stronger as it is
strained at a higher rate, this region exhibits a higher resistance to
necking.
4. Thus, the increase in the resistance to necking depends on the
magnitude of m. 85
 strain rate sensitivity
exponent m
the strain rate sensitivity exponent m is an
important parameter in superplasticity. It
describes the capacity of the material to
resist necking and has been used as a
criterion to assess proposed mechanisms of
superplastic deformation.

86
 Superplasticity
 Superplasticity:
Superplasticity the capability of some materials to undergo
large, uniform elongation prior necking and fracturing in tension.
 The elongation may be on the order of few hundred percent to
as much as 200%.
 Common non-metallic materials exhibiting superplastic behavior
are : bubble gum, thermoplastics, and glass (at elevated
temperatures). As a result, glass and thermoplastics can be
formed successful into complex shapes, such as beverage
bottles
 Among metals exhibiting superplastic behavior are very fine
grain [10-15µm] titanium alloys and alloys of zinc-aluminum;
when heated, they can elongate to many times their original
length.

87
Values for C and m

88
 Ductility
 The strain in the specimen at
fracture is a measure of ductility,
ductility
that is, how large a strain the material
withstands before fracture
 Ductility is the extent of plastic
deformation that the material
undergoes before fracture.
 The strain up to the UTS is called
uniform strain.
strain
 The elongation at fracture is known as
the total elongation.
elongation
 The total elongation is measured
between the original gage marks after
the two pieces of the broken specimen
are placed together. 89
 Ductility
L f  Lo
• Plastic tensile strain at failure: %EL  x 100
Lo
smaller %EL
Engineering
tensile
stress,  larger %EL Ao
Lo Af Lf

Engineering tensile strain, 

• Another ductility measure: Ao - Af

%RA = x 100
Ao

Chapter 6 - 90
 Ductility
 Two quantities that are commonly used to define
ductility
1. Elongation
2. Reduction of area

(l f  l0 ) Elongation ranges
Elongation  100 approximately (10%-60%)
l0

( A0  A f ) Reduction of Area
Reduction of Area  100
A0 ranges (20%-90%)
91
Elongation versus % Area
Reduction
Figure 2.4
Approximate
relationship
between elongation
and tensile
reduction of area
for various groups
of metals.

92
 TOUGHNESS
Toughness is the area under  -  curve up to fracture.

f

Toughness   d
0
Where ϵf is the true strain at fracture.

Note that toughness is the energy per unit

volume that has been dissipated up to the
point of fracture

Toughness is the material’s ability

to absorb energy before fracture

- Similar to Resilience (same units J/m3).

- Larger area  tougher material.
ductility such as
strength And …………
So tough materials have a combination of ………...
ruber
Can be measured by an impact test.
 Toughness
• Energy to break a unit volume of material
• Approximate by the area under the stress-strain curve.

Engineering small toughness (ceramics)

tensile large toughness (metals)
stress, 
very small toughness
(unreinforced polymers)

Engineering tensile strain, 

Brittle fracture: elastic energy
Ductile fracture: elastic + plastic energy

Chapter 6 - 94
 Example 1
• A cable is made of material of (K =
60,000 psi, n = 0.5) Calculate the true
and engineering UTS for this cable prior
to necking.
• σ= Kεn

95
 Example 2
• Assume that a material has true stress
– true strain curve given by:
σ = 100,000 ε0.5 psi. Calculate the true
ultimate tensile strength and
engineering UTS of this material.

96
 Example 3
• A cable is made of two strands of different
materials, A and B, and cross sections as
follows:
For material A: K=70,000 psi, n=0.5, A0=0.6 in2.
For material B: K=25,000 psi, n=0.5, A0=0.3 in2
Calculate the maximum tensile force that this
cable can withstand.

97
Example 4

98
 Compression Test
 Many operation in metalworking, such as
forging, rolling, and extrusion, are
performed with the workpiece under
externally applied compressive forces.
 The compression test, in which the specimen
is subjected to a compressive load, can give
useful information for these process, such as
1. stresses required and
2. the behavior of the material under
compression.
 The deformation shown in figure is ideal.
 The test is usually carried out by compressing
(upsetting) a solid cylindrical specimen
between two flat dies

99
 Compression Test
 The friction between the
specimen and the die is an
important factor, in that, it causes
barreling because friction
prevents the top and bottom
surfaces from expanding freely.
 This phenomena makes it difficult
to obtain relevant data and
construct a compressive stress-
strain curve because:
1. The cross sectional area of the
specimen changes along its
height (barreling effect) With effective lubrication, it is
possible to minimize friction, and
2. Friction dissipated energy and
this energy is supplied through an hence barreling to obtain
increased in compressive force. reasonable constant cross sectional
area. 100
 Compression Test

by convention, stress and strain are negative

 Engineering strain rate

Where v is the speed of the die used for measuring
ho is the original length of the specimen strength of brittle
materials and for
calculating forces
True strain rate required in
manufacturing
Where v is the speed of the die processing which
h is the current length of the specimen involve
compressive
deformation
101
 Shear Test

Shear stress is  = F/Ao and  (shear strain) is

tangent of shear angle, 
G =  /, G is shear modulus

Shear tests are often used to measure

adhesive bonding, riveted joints etc
 Torsion-Test Specimen
 Another method of determining material properties is torsion test.
 This test is generally carried out on tubular specimen with a reduced
mid section
 A typical torsion-test specimen. It is mounted between the two heads of a machine
and is twisted. Note the shear deformation of an element in the reduced section.

T
Shear stress,  
2r t
2

r
Shear strain, 
l

T: Torque applied, t: thickness of the reduced section, r: is mean

radius, Ф: twist angle, l: the length of reduced section
Shear modulus or modulus of rigidity (G)=(shear stress/shear strain) in
103
the elastic range.
 Testing of Brittle Materials

 A perfect elastic material

displays linear behavior with
slope E
 This is the behavior of brittle
material, such as most
ceramics, common glass,
,some cast iron and Perfectly elastic
thermosetting plastic. These
brittle materials may be No plastic flow
represented by such curve.

104
 Testing of Brittle Materials
 Recall: Hard brittle materials (e.g., ceramics) possess elasticity but little
or no plasticity.
 Ceramics are not normally tested in tension because:
1. It is difficult to machine brittle material to the required geometry
(Shaping and machining them to proper dimensions can be challenging)
2. it is difficult to grip brittle materials without inducing fracture
(Clamping brittle test specimen for testing can be difficult)
3. Brittle materials are sensitive to surface defects and scratches. Why
4. ceramics typically fail after only ~ 0.1% strain
5. Improper alignment of the test specimen may result in nonuniform
stress distribution along cross section of the specimen
For these reasons, the mechanical properties are determined using a
different approach, the Three point bend test: or Four point bend test
 Specimen geometry is either circular or
rectangular cross section
 During the test, the top surface is under
compression while the bottom surface is
under tension
 Brittle materials are sensitive to
surface defects and scratches
Why brittle materials are so weak in tension
compared to their strength in compression.
This because of the presence of defects in brittle
material (brittle materials are so sensitive to
defects) explain why????
 Under tension, the tip of a crack is subjected to
high tensile stresses which propagate the crack
rapidly, because brittle materials has little
capacity to absorb or dissipate energy.
 Bending
 A common test method for brittle materials is the bend test
 Usually involves a specimen with
rectangular cross section and
supported at both ends.
 The load is applied vertically, either
at one or two points (three point or
four point bending test).
 The basic difference between the two
loading conditions:
 In three- point bending test, the
maximum stress is at the center of  The stress magnitude is the
the beam
same in both situations when
 In four-point test, the maximum all other parameters are
stress is constant between the two maintained. 107
loading points
 Hardness
One of the most common tests for assessing
the mechanical properties of materials is the
hardness test.
Hardness of material is generally defined
as its resistance to permanent indentation; it
can also be defined as its resistance to
scratching or wear

108
 Hardness
• Resistance to permanently indenting the surface.
• Large hardness means:
--resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in
compression.
--better wear properties.
apply known force measure size
e.g., of indent after
10 mm sphere removing load

Smaller indents
D d mean larger
hardness.

most brasses easy to machine cutting nitrided

plastics Al alloys steels file hard tools steels diamond

increasing hardness
Chapter 6 - 109
Hardness Tests

110
 Brinell Testing
 In the Brinell test, a steel or tungsten carbide ball
10mm in diameter is pressed against a surface with
a load of 500, 1500, or 3000kg.
 The Brinell hardness number is defined as the ratio
of the load P to the curved area of indentation

 D is the diameter of the ball

 d is the diameter of the impression
111
 Brinell Testing
 Depending on the condition of the material tested, different
type of impressions are obtained on the surface after a
Brinell hardness test has been performed.
 Annealed materials, generally have a round profile,
whereas cold work materials have a sharp profile. The
correct method of measuring the indentation diameter d for
both cases is shown below:

(a) annealed metal (b) work-hardened metal 112

 Brinell Testing
 Because the steel ball indenter has a finite elastic
modulus, it undergoes elastic deformation under the
applied load, P; thus hardness measurements may not be
as accurate as expected.
 A common method of minimizing this effect is to use
tungsten carbide balls, because of their high modulus of
elasticity, deform less than steel ball.

113
 RocwellTesting
 In Rockwell test, the indenter is pressed on surface,
first with minor load and then with a major load.
 The differences in the depth of penetration is a
measure of the hardness.
 Rockwell hardness test uses different scales that
employ different loads.
 55 HRC is read as : the hardness number is 55 using
the C scale

114
 The effects of grain size on yield strength
 A change in grain size affects the yield strength due to
the dislocations interacting with the grain boundary as
they move.
 The boundaries act as obstacles, hindering the
dislocation glide along the slip planes. As subsequent
dislocations move along the same slip plane so that the
dislocations pile-up at the grain boundaries..
 The dislocations repel each other, so as the number of
dislocations in the pile-up increases the stress on the
grain boundary increases.
 In fact, if there are n dislocations in the pile-up, the stress
at the grain boundary will be n times the applied stress.
115
 The effects of grain size on yield strength
 If the grain boundary in a sample gives way at a
stress τ, there needs to be a stress of τ/n applied to
the sample in order to cause the boundary to
collapse.
 In a larger grain there will be more dislocations within
the grain, so there will be more dislocations in the
pile-up. Therefore a lower applied stress is required to
produce a local stress great enough to cause the
grain boundary to collapse.

116
 The effects of grain size on yield strength
 Accurate modelling is difficult, but it is found that the
tensile yield stress, σy, is related to grain diameter, d,
by the Hall-Petch :

 where σi is the 'intrinsic' yield stress, and k is a

constant for a particular material.

117
 Grain Size and Material Strength
 It was noted that most low-temperature, permanent
deformation of metal comes from the movement of
crystalline imperfections, known as dislocations,
through the grains in the metal..
 Given enough stress and thermal energy, dislocations
will easily move throughout the crystalline grains,
resulting in permanent distortion of the grain itself.
 However, once a dislocation reaches a grain
boundary, it has nowhere to go. In other words, grain
boundaries stop dislocations.

118
 Grain Size and Material Strength

Representation of a Dislocation Stopped by a Grain

Boundary (Red Line)..

119
 Grain Size and Material Strength
 Thus, an easy way to improve the strength of a
material is to make the grains as small as possible,
increasing the amount of grain boundary.
 Smaller grains have greater ratios of surface area to
volume, which means a greater ratio of grain
boundary to dislocations.
 The more grain boundaries that exist, the higher the
strength becomes.

120
 Grain Size and Material Strength
 The following example illustrates this principle. Figure
shows a crude representation of two grains. For the
sake of simplicity, the grains are illustrated as perfect
rectangular prisms. Each prism is made up of several
cubic units.

121
 Grain Size and Material Strength
 For the sake of this analysis, each unit contains exactly six dislocations.

 For the larger grain, there are 2 x 3 x 4 = 24 cubic units, and the
smaller grain is one cubic unit.
 The larger grain will have 24 x 6 = 144 dislocations, and the smaller
grain has six.
 The larger grain has a total surface area of 2 x (2 x 4) + 2 x (2 x 3)
+ 2 x (3 x 4) = 52 square units. 122
 The smaller grain has a surface area of 6 square units.
 Grain Size and Material Strength

 For every dislocation in the large grain, there is 0.36 square units of grain
boundary.
 In the smaller grain, there is one square unit of grain boundary for
each dislocation.
 There is a much greater chance for a dislocation to be stopped at a grain
boundary in the smaller grain. Therefore, the smaller grain is stronger.
123
 Grain Size and Material Strength

 In the larger grain, a dislocation can travel up to 4 units without being

stopped by a grain boundary,indicating the potential for extensive
plastic flow.
 In the small grain, no dislocation can travel more than 1unit of
distance. This type of strengthening is known as Hall-Petch
strengthening. 124
 Polycrystalline metal
• Metallic engineering materials are not normally in the form of
single crystals, but they are composed of many small crystals
or grains, and in many cases these small crystal have a
random orientation.
• For a polycrystalline sample of a closed packed hexagonal
metal, such as zinc, it will be apparent that while the slip
planes in some crystals might be favourably inclined for slip
under the action of an applied stress, other crystals may not
be aligned in a suitable direction.
 Consequently, plastic deformation of the favourably positioned
crystals will be hindered, or even completely prevented by:
 Unfavourably placed adjacent crystals.
 The crystal boundaries (grain boundaries) will also hinder
plastic deformation
 Polycrystalline metal

(a) Random orientation of slip planes

(b) Representation of grains and boundaries
 Characteristics of Grain Boundaries

• From this it follows that the grain boundaries

in pure metal tend to be stronger than the
crystal grains, and that:
• (A sample composed of a large number of a
very small crystals will be stronger than
another sample of the same metal
containing a smaller number of larger crystal
grains).
• These statement do not hold true at all time.
• WHY???????????
 Characteristics of Grain Boundaries
 In some alloys and impure metal there may be
segregation of alloy constituents, or impurities, to grain
boundaries. In some cases these (alloy constituents, or
impurities) renders the crystal boundaries weak.
 For example, copper is embrittled by the segregation of
traces of bismuth and impurity to grain boundaries. So
that at very high temperatures close to melting
temperature, the grain boundaries become weaker than
the crystals and the plastic deformation may occur by a
process of viscous flow of the grain boundary material.
 Turbine blades for aircraft are manufactured by a special
process to which produces a single crystal structure
 Polycrystalline metal
• A single crystal will exhibit
anisotropy, that is, it will possess
differing properties in different
directions.
• A polycrystalline material in which
the orientation of the individual
crystals is purely random arrangement
will be virtually isotropic.
 Single Crystals
• When the periodic and repeated arrangement of
atoms is perfect or extends throughout the entity of the
specimen without interruption, the result is a single
crystal.

• Examples: gem stone (natural), silicon single crystals

used in electronic microcircuits (artificial.)

130
 Polycrystalline Materials
• Polycrystalline is a collection of many small grains.
- Grain sizes typically range from 1 nm to 2 cm
(i.e., from a few to millions of atomic layers).

Solidification
stages of a
polycrystalline
specimen

• Most engineering materials are polycrystals.

131
 Polycrystalline Materials
Grain
Boundaries
 Polycrystalline Materials
• The difference in directions of grains result from the
random growth of unit cells, this means that the
orientation of grain one differs from the orientation of
grain two and it is also different from the orientation
of grain three.
• If grain one reaches the yield point, it is not
necessary that the same thing will happen to grain
two or three, because of the different orientation of
grains. This means that slip that is occurring in grain
one will not occur in grain two or three at the same
time.
• Slip occurs when the shear stress reaches a critical
value within a slip plane and a slip direction, this
stress is called the critical yield stress or (resolved
shear stress)
 Single vs. Polycrystals
• Single Crystals E (diagonal) = 273 GPa

-Properties vary with

direction: anisotropic.
-Example: the modulus
of elasticity (E) in BCC iron:
E (edge) = 125 GPa
• Polycrystals
-Properties may/may not 200 m
vary with direction.
-If grains are randomly
oriented: isotropic (properties
are independent of the measuring
direction.)
-If grains are textured,
anisotropic.
134
 Isotropy versus anisotropy
 Within each grain, there are preferred planes where
the atoms (in the form of dislocations) are free to
move across each other. These are known as slip
planes.
 If the applied stress coincides with a slip plane, the
dislocations can move easily.
 If the applied stress is perpendicular to the slip plane,
it would be extremely difficult for the dislocations to
move. Therefore, each grain is weaker in certain
directions than in others.

135
 Isotropy versus anisotropy
 If all the grains in the base metal are oriented the
same way, the metal would certainly show signs of
weakness in a particular direction. The same would
be true if there were just one or two grains across a
critical dimension.
 However, with many grains oriented in random
directions, the microscopic directionality of strength
would tend to be averaged out. This would provide
equal strength in all directions.

136
 Single crystal
 A single crystal  is a material in which the crystal lattice
of the entire sample is continuous, with no grain
boundaries . The absence of the defects associated with
grain boundaries can give unique properties, particularly
mechanical, which can also be anisotropic.
 Anisotropy is the property of being directionally
dependent, as opposed to isotropy, which implies
identical properties in all directions. It can be defined as
a difference, when measured along different axes, in a
material's physical or mechanical properties
(absorbance, refractive index, conductivity, tensile
strength, etc.) An example of anisotropy is the wood,
which is easier to split along its grain than against it.
137
 Grain boundary
 A grain boundary is the interface between two grains, or
crystallites , in a polycrystalline material.
 Grain boundaries are defects  in the crystal  structure, and
tend to decrease the electrical  and thermal conductivity  of
the material.
 Most grain boundaries are preferred sites for the onset of
corrosion and for the precipitation  of new phases from the
solid.
 They are also important to many of the mechanisms of creep.
 On the other hand, grain boundaries disrupt the motion
of Dislocations through a material, so reducing crystallite size
is a common way to improve strength, as described by
the Hall-Petch relationship.
138
 Characteristics of Grain Boundaries
1. Grain boundaries don’t contain slip planes
2. The thickness of grain boundaries is between 2 – 5 atoms
3. Grain boundaries don’t posses crystalline structure and that is
why it doesn't have slip planes as it has a amorphous structure
4. Grain boundaries are not simple planes but they are transition
zones between adjacent crystals of different orientations,
these transition zones which may be of several atoms
thickness don’t posses regular planes and consequently act as
barriers to the movement of dislocations
5. Grain boundaries contain many inclusions (impurities). These
inclusions some times weakness the strength of grain
boundaries.
6. Grain boundaries are the last to solidify in the structure and the
first to melt in the structure.
 Characteristics of Grain Boundaries

1. The grain boundaries are not simple planes but

they are transition zones between adjacent
crystals of different orientation.
2. These transition zones (which may be of several
atoms in thickness , between 2 – 5 atoms) do not
possess regular planes (it has a amorphous
structure) and consequently act as barriers to
the movement of dislocations
Relationship between Hardness and Strength

141
 Relationship between Hardness and Strength

 Note the smaller values

of C for cold worked
metals
 the higher value of C
for annealed materials
is explained by the fact
that, due to strain
hardening

These results are  Hardness of cold worked metals=

3*Y (close to being perfectly plastic
not reasonable in their behavior). 142

 Hardness of annealed metals= 5*Y.