Mechanical Properties of Metals

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• Stress and strain: What are they and why are
they used instead of load and deformation?
• Elastic behavior: When loads are small, how much
deformation occurs? What materials deform least?
• Plastic behavior: At what point does permanent
deformation occur? What materials are most
resistant to permanent deformation?
• Toughness and ductility: What are they and how
do we measure them?

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Elastic Deformation
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload

bonds
stretch

return to
initial
δ
F
F Linear-
elastic
Elastic means reversible! Non-Linear-
elastic
δ
2
Plastic Deformation (Metals)
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
bonds
stretch planes
& planes still
shear sheared

δ elastic + plastic δ plastic

F
F
Plastic means permanent! linear linear
elastic elastic
δ
δ plastic
3
 Engineering Stress
• Tensile stress, σ: • Shear stress, τ:
Ft Ft F

Area, Ao Fs
Area, Ao

Fs
Ft
F
τ = s F Ft
Ft
σ= = N Ao
Ao m2
original cross-sectional area
 Stress has units:
before loading
N/m2
4
 Common States of Stress
• Simple tension: cable
F F
A o = cross-sectional
area (when unloaded)
F
σ= σ σ
Ao
Ski lift (photo courtesy
• Torsion (a form of shear): drive shaft P.M. Anderson)

M Fs Ao τ
Ac
Fs
τ =
Ao
M
2R Note: τ = M/AcR here.
5
 OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (i)
• Simple compression:

Ao

Canyon Bridge, Los Alamos, NM

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

F Note: compressive
Balanced Rock, Arches σ= structure member
National Park
(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
Ao (σ < 0 here).

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OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (ii)
• Bi-axial tension: • Hydrostatic compression:

Pressurized tank Fish under water (photo courtesy

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
P.M. Anderson)
σθ > 0

σz > 0 σh < 0

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 Engineering Strain
• Tensile strain: • Lateral strain:
δ /2
- δL
e= δ eL =
Lo Lo wo
wo

δ L /2
• Shear strain:
θ
x γ = Δx/y = tan θ

y 90º - θ Strain is always

90º dimensionless.
Adapted from Fig. 8.1 (a) and (c), Callister & Rethwisch 9e. 8
 Stress-Strain Testing
• Typical tensile test • Typical tensile
machine specimen

Fig. 8.2,
extensometer specimen Callister &
Rethwisch 9e.

Fig. 8.3, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

(Taken from H.W. Hayden, W.G. Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The Structure and Properties of
Materials, Vol. III, Mechanical Behavior, p. 2, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1965.)
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Linear Elastic Properties
• Modulus of Elasticity, E:
(also known as Young's modulus)

• Hooke's Law:
σ=Ee σ F
E

e
Linear-
elastic F
simple
tension
test

10
 Poisson's ratio, ν eL
• Poisson's ratio, ν:

eL
ν =-
e e

metals: ν ~ 0.33 -ν
ceramics: ν ~ 0.25
polymers: ν ~ 0.40

Units:  > 0.50 density increases

E: [GPa] or [psi]
 < 0.50 density decreases
ν: dimensionless (voids form)

11
Mechanical Properties
• Slope of stress strain plot (which is
proportional to the elastic modulus) depends
on bond strength of metal

Fig. 8.7, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

12
 Other Elastic Properties
τ M
• Elastic Shear
modulus, G: G simple
γ torsion
τ=Gγ test

M
• Elastic Bulk P P
modulus, K:
ΔV ΔV P P
P = -K Vo
Vo K pressure
test: Init.
vol =Vo.
• Special relations for isotropic materials: Vol chg.
= ΔV
E E
G= K=
2(1 + ν) 3(1 - 2ν)
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 Young’s Moduli: Comparison
Graphite
Metals Composites
Ceramics Polymers
Alloys /fibers
Semicond
1200
1000 Diamond
800
600
Si carbide
400 Tungsten Al oxide Carbon fibers only
Molybdenum Si nitride
E(GPa) 200
Steel, Ni
Tantalum <111>
CFRE(|| fibers)*
Platinum Si crystal
Cu alloys <100> Aramid fibers only
100 Zinc, Ti
80 Silver, Gold
Glass -soda AFRE(|| fibers)* Based on data in Table B.2,
Aluminum Glass fibers only
60
40
Magnesium,
Tin GFRE(|| fibers)* Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
Concrete Composite data based on
109 Pa 20 GFRE*
CFRE*
reinforced epoxy with 60 vol%
of aligned
Graphite GFRE( fibers)*
10 carbon (CFRE),
8 CFRE( fibers) *
6 AFRE( fibers) *
aramid (AFRE), or
Polyester glass (GFRE)
4 PET
PS fibers.
PC Epoxy only
2
PP
1 HDPE
0.8
0.6 Wood( grain)
PTFE
0.4

0.2 LDPE 14
Useful Linear Elastic Relationships
• Simple tension: • Simple torsion:

δ = FL o δ L = - ν Fw o 2ML o
α=
EA o EA o π r o4 G
F M = moment
δ /2 α = angle of twist
Ao
Lo Lo
wo

2ro
δ L /2
• Material, geometric, and loading parameters all
contribute to deflection.
• Larger elastic moduli minimize elastic deflection.
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 Plastic (Permanent) Deformation
(at lower temperatures, i.e. T < Tmelt/3)

• Simple tension test:

Elastic+Plastic
engineering stress,σ at larger stress

Elastic
initially
permanent (plastic)
after load is removed

ep engineering strain, e

plastic strain Adapted from Fig. 8.10 (a),

Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

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 Yield Strength, σy
• Stress at which noticeable plastic deformation has
occurred.
when ep = 0.002
tensile stress, σ
y = yield strength
σy

Note: for 2 inch sample

e = 0.002 = z/z
 z = 0.004 in

engineering strain, e
ep = 0.002 Adapted from Fig. 8.10 (a),
Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
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 Yield Strength : Comparison
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
2000
Steel (4140) qt

1000
Yield strength, σ y (MPa)

Ti (5Al-2.5Sn) a

in ceramic matrix and epoxy matrix composites, since

700 W (pure)

since in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

600

in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

Cu (71500) cw
500 Mo (pure)
400 Steel (4140) a
Steel (1020) cd Room temperature
300
Hard to measure ,

values

Hard to measure,
Al (6061) ag
200 Steel (1020) hr
¨
Ti (pure) a
Ta (pure)
Cu (71500) hr Based on data in Table B.4,
Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
100
a = annealed
dry
70 PC
hr = hot rolled
60 Nylon 6,6 ag = aged
50 Al (6061) a PET
cd = cold drawn
40 PVC humid
cw = cold worked
PP
30 HDPE qt = quenched & tempered
20

LDPE
Tin (pure) 18
10
VMSE: Virtual Tensile Testing

19
 Tensile Strength, TS
• Maximum stress on engineering stress-strain curve.
Adapted from Fig. 8.11,
Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
TS
F = fracture or
y
engineering

ultimate
strength
stress

Typical response of a metal

Neck – acts
as stress
concentrator
strain
engineering strain
• Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts.
• Polymers: occurs when polymer backbone chains are
aligned and about to break.
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 Tensile Strength: Comparison Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
5000 C fibers
Aramid fib
3000 E-glass fib
Tensile strength, TS (MPa)

2000 Steel (4140) qt

AFRE(|| fiber)
1000 W (pure) Diamond GFRE(|| fiber)
Ti (5Al-2.5Sn)aa CFRE(|| fiber)
Steel (4140)cw
Cu (71500) Si nitride
Cu (71500) hr Al oxide
300
Steel (1020)
Al (6061) ag
Ti (pure) a
Room temperature
200 Ta (pure)
values
Al (6061) a
100 Si crystal wood(|| fiber) Based on data in Table B4,
<100> Nylon 6,6
Glass-soda PC PET Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
40 PVC GFRE( fiber) a = annealed
Concrete PP
30 CFRE( fiber) hr = hot rolled
AFRE( fiber)
HDPE ag = aged
20 Graphite
LDPE cd = cold drawn
cw = cold worked
10 qt = quenched & tempered
AFRE, GFRE, & CFRE =
aramid, glass, & carbon
fiber-reinforced epoxy
wood ( fiber)
composites, with 60 vol%
fibers.
1 21
 Ductility
Lf - Lo
• Plastic tensile strain at failure: %EL = x 100
Lo
smaller %EL
Engineering
tensile
stress, σ larger %EL Ao
Lo Af Lf
Adapted from Fig. 8.13,
Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

Engineering tensile strain, e

• Another ductility measure: Ao - A f

%RA = x 100
Ao

22
 Toughness
• Energy to break a unit volume of material
• Approximate by the area under the stress-strain curve.

Engineering small toughness (ceramics)

tensile large toughness (metals)
stress, σ
Adapted from Fig. 8.13, very small toughness
Callister & Rethwisch 9e. (unreinforced polymers)

Engineering tensile strain, e

Brittle fracture: elastic energy

Ductile fracture: elastic + plastic energy
23
Resilience, Ur
• Ability of a material to store energy
• Energy stored best in elastic region

If we assume a linear
stress-strain curve this
simplifies to

1
Ur ≅ σy ey
ey 2
Fig. 8.15, Callister &
Rethwisch 9e.
24
Elastic Strain Recovery
σyi D

σyo
2. Unload
Stress

1. Load 3. Reapply
load
Strain

Fig. 8.17, Callister & Elastic strain

Rethwisch 9e. recovery
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 Hardness
• Resistance to permanently indenting the surface.
• Large hardness means:
-- resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in
compression.
-- better wear properties.
apply known force measure size
e.g., of indent after
10 mm sphere removing load

Smaller indents
D d mean larger
hardness.

most brasses easy to machine cutting nitrided

plastics Al alloys steels file hard tools steels diamond

increasing hardness
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Hardness: Measurement
• Rockwell
• No major sample damage
• Each scale runs to 130 but only useful in range 20-
100.
• Minor load 10 kg
• Major load 60 (A), 100 (B) & 150 (C) kg
• A = diamond, B = 1/16 in. ball, C = diamond

• HB = Brinell Hardness
• TS (psia) = 500 x HB
• TS (MPa) = 3.45 x HB
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Hardness: Measurement
Table 8.5

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True Stress & Strain
Note: S.A. changes when sample stretched

• True stress

• True strain

Adapted from Fig. 8.16,

Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

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Hardening
• An increase in σy due to plastic deformation.
σ
large hardening
σy
1
σy small hardening
0

e
• Curve fit to the stress-strain response:
hardening exponent:
n n = 0.15 (some steels)
σ T = K eT( ) to n = 0.5 (some coppers)
“true” stress (F/A) “true” strain: ln(l/lo)
30
Summary
• Stress and strain: These are size-independent
measures of load and displacement, respectively.
• Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often
shows a linear relation between stress and strain.
To minimize deformation, select a material with a
large elastic modulus (E or G).
• Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation
behavior occurs when the tensile (or compressive)
uniaxial stress reaches σy.
• Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit
volume of material.
• Ductility: The plastic strain at failure.

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