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MECHANICAL
PROPERTIES OF
METALS
Dr. Azhar Hussain
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• Mechanical Properties refers to the behavior of

material when
• external forces are applied
• Stress and strain ⇒ fracture
• For engineering point of view: allows to predict the
ability of a component or a structure to withstand the
forces applied to it

For science point of view: what makes

materials strong →helps us to design a
better new one
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Elastic Deformation
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload

bonds
stretch

return to
initial
d
F
F Linear-
elastic
Elastic means reversible!
Non-Linear-
elastic
d Grey iron, concrete,
polymers)
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Plastic Deformation (Metals)

1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
bonds
planes
stretch
still
& planes
sheared
shear

d plastic
d elastic + plastic

F
F
Plastic means permanent!
linear linear
elastic elastic
d
dplastic
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Direct Stress Examples

Load, P
Engineering Stress Load, P
L/2

P L/2

S=
Lo Area
Ao
Lo Area

L
Ao
Ao

e=
Lo
L/2 L/2
P Engineering Strain
P

Direct Stress - Tension Direct Stress - Compression

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Engineering Stress
• Tensile stress, s: • Shear stress, t:
Ft Ft F

Area, Ao Fs
Area, Ao

Fs
Ft
Fs Ft
Ft lb f N t= F
s= = 2 or 2
Ao
Ao in m
original area  Stress has units:
before loading N/m2 or lbf /in2
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Common States of Stress

• Simple tension: cable

F F
A o = cross sectional
area (when unloaded)
F
s= s s
Ao
Ski lift (photo courtesy
• Torsion (a form of shear): drive shaft P.M. Anderson)

M Fs Ao
Ac
Fs
t =
Ao
M
2R
Note: t = M/AcR here.
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OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (i)

• Simple compression:

Ao

Canyon Bridge, Los Alamos, NM

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

F
s=
Note: compressive
Balanced Rock, Arches structure member
National Park
(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
Ao (s < 0 here).
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OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (ii)

• Bi-axial tension: • Hydrostatic compression:

Pressurized tank Fish under water (photo courtesy

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
P.M. Anderson) s >0
q

sz > 0 sh< 0
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Engineering Strain
• Tensile strain: • Lateral strain:
d /2
e = d
-dL
Lo eL =
Lo wo
wo
𝛿 = 𝐿-𝐿°
d /2
• Shear strain: L

q
x
g = x/y = tan q

y 90º - q
Strain is always
90º dimensionless.
Adapted from Fig. 6.1(a) and (c), Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
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Stress-Strain Testing
• Typical tensile test • Typical tensile
machine specimen

Adapted from
extensometer specimen Fig. 6.2,
Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.

gauge
length

Adapted from Fig. 6.3, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (Fig. 6.3 is taken from H.W.
Hayden, W.G. Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The Structure and Properties of Materials,
Vol. III, Mechanical Behavior, p. 2, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1965.)
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Modern Material Testing System

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Raw Data Obtained

Total Elongation
Uniform Deformation
Load, P

X
(kN)

Maximum
Load, Pmax

Elastic
Deformation Load,
Pf

Elongation, L (mm)
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Engineering Stress-Strain Curve

Elongation
Sy
0.2% offset
yield stress
Engineering Stress, S=P/Ao

E (Ultimate)
Su
E

Proportional Limit

Engineering Strain, e = L/Lo)

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F
Linear Elastic Properties
• Modulus of Elasticity, E:
(also known as Young's modulus)
s
• Hooke's Law:

s=Ee E F
simple
e tension
test
Linear-
elastic

• Elastic deformation is not permanent; it means that when the load is

removed, the part returns to its original shape and dimensions.
• For most metals, the elastic region is linear. For some materials, including
metals such as cast iron, polymers, and concrete, the elastic region is
non-linear.
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Modulus of Elasticity -stiffness

500

CONTINUED
400
Stress (MPa)

300

200 S (300 - 0)MPa

E= = = 2x10 5 MPa
e (0.015 - 0.0)

100

0
0.000 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010
Strain
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The elastic modulus is proportional to the slope of the

interatomic force-separation curve at the equilibrium spacing

The magnitude of
modulus of elasticity
is a measure of the
resistance to
separation of
adjacent atoms, that
is interatomic
bonding forces.
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Modulus of elasticity- Temperature

Values of the modulus of elasticity for

ceramic materials are about the same
as for metals; for polymers they are
lower. These differences are a direct
consequence of the different types of
atomic bonding in the three materials
types.
Furthermore, with increasing
temperature, the modulus of elasticity
diminishes, as
is shown for several metals in Figure.
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Young’s Moduli: Comparison

Metals
Graphite
Composites
Ceramics Polymers
Alloys /fibers
Semicond
1200
1000 Diamond
800
600
Si carbide
400 Tungsten Al oxide Carbon fibers only
Molybdenum Si nitride
E(GPa) 200
Steel, Ni
Tantalum <111>
CFRE(|| fibers)*
Platinum Si crystal
Cu alloys <100> Aramid fibers only
100 Zinc, Ti
80 Silver, Gold
Glass -soda AFRE(|| fibers)* Based on data in Table B.2,
Aluminum Glass fibers only
60
40
Magnesium,
Tin GFRE(|| fibers)* Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Concrete Composite data based on
109 Pa 20 GFRE* reinforced epoxy with 60 vol%
CFRE* of aligned
Graphite GFRE( fibers)*
10 carbon (CFRE),
8 CFRE( fibers) *
6 AFRE( fibers) *
aramid (AFRE), or
Polyester glass (GFRE)
4 PET
PS fibers.
PC Epoxy only
2
PP
1 HDPE
0.8
0.6 Wood( grain)
PTFE
0.4

0.2 LDPE
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Example
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Problem
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Elastic Properties of Materials

• Poisson’s ratio: When a metal is strained in one
direction, there are corresponding strains in all other
directions.
• For a uniaxial tension strain, the lateral strains
are constrictive.
• Conversely, for a uniaxial compressive strain,
the lateral strains are expansive.
• i.e.; the lateral strains are opposite in sign to
the axial strain.
• The ratio of lateral to axial strains is known as
Poisson’s ratio, n.
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Poisson's ratio, n eL
• Poisson's ratio, n:

Ratio of
eL
lateral n=-
and e e
axial
strains
metals: n ~ 0.33 -n
ceramics: n ~ 0.25
polymers: n ~ 0.40

Units: n > 0.50 density increases

E: [GPa] or [psi]
n: dimensionless n < 0.50 density decreases
(voids form)
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Poisson’s Ratio, n

ex ey
n =- =-
ez ez
For most metals,
0.25 < n < 0.35
in the elastic range
Furthermore:
E = 2G (1 +n )
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Other Elastic
• Elastic Shear
Properties
t M
modulus, G: G simple
g torsion
t=Gg test

M
• Elastic Bulk P
modulus, K:
P
V V P P
P = -K Vo
Vo K pressure
test: Init.
vol =Vo.
• Special relations for isotropic materials: Vol chg.
= V
E E
G = K =
2(1 + n) 3(1 - 2n)
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Plastic (Permanent) Deformation

(at lower temperatures, i.e. T < Tmelt/3)

• Simple tension test:

Elastic+Plastic
engineering stress, s at larger stress

Elastic
initially
permanent (plastic)
after load is removed

ep engineering strain, e

plastic strain Adapted from Fig. 6.10(a),

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
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Plastic Deformation
Elastic Plastic Elastic Plastic
Elastic Plastic
Sy
Sy

Sy
Stress

0.002 0.002 Strain 0.002

Most Metals - Al, Cu Clad Al-Alloys Low carbon Steel

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Yield Strength, s y
• Stress at which noticeable plastic deformation has
occurred.
when ep = 0.002

tensile stress, s
sy = yield strength
sy
Note: for 2 inch sample
e = 0.002 = l/l
 z = 0.004 in

engineering strain, e
ep = 0.002 Adapted from Fig. 6.10(a),
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
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Yield Strength : Comparison

Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
2000
Steel (4140) qt

1000
Yield strength, sy (MPa)

Ti (5Al-2.5Sn) a

in ceramic matrix and epoxy matrix composites, since

700 W (pure)

since in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

600 Cu (71500) cw
500 Mo (pure)
400 Steel (4140) a Room temperature
Steel (1020) cd
300 values
Hard to measure ,

Hard to measure,
Al (6061) ag
200 Steel (1020) hr ¨
Ti (pure) a
Ta (pure)
Cu (71500) hr Based on data in Table B.4,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
100
a = annealed
dry
70 PC
hr = hot rolled
60 Nylon 6,6 ag = aged
50 Al (6061) a PET
cd = cold drawn
40 PVC humid
cw = cold worked
PP
30 HDPE qt = quenched & tempered
20

LDPE
Tin (pure)
10
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Tensile Strength, TS
• Maximum stress on engineering stress-strain curve.
Adapted from Fig. 6.11,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
TS
F = fracture or
sy
ultimate
engineering

strength
stress

Typical response of a metal

Neck – acts
as stress
concentrator
strain
engineering strain
• Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts.
• Polymers: occurs when polymer backbone chains are
aligned and about to break.
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Tensile Strength: Comparison

Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
5000 C fibers
Aramid fib
3000 E-glass fib
Tensile strength, TS (MPa)

2000 Steel (4140) qt

AFRE(|| fiber)
1000 W (pure) Diamond GFRE(|| fiber)
Ti (5Al-2.5Sn)aa CFRE(|| fiber)
Steel (4140)cw
Cu (71500) Si nitride
Cu (71500) hr Al oxide
300
Steel (1020)
Al (6061) ag
Room temperature
Ti (pure) a values
200 Ta (pure)
Al (6061) a
100 Si crystal wood(|| fiber) Based on data in Table B.4,
<100> Nylon 6,6
Glass-soda PC PET Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
40 PVC GFRE( fiber) a = annealed
Concrete PP
30 CFRE( fiber) hr = hot rolled
AFRE( fiber)
HDPE ag = aged
20 Graphite
LDPE cd = cold drawn
cw = cold worked
10 qt = quenched & tempered
AFRE, GFRE, & CFRE =
aramid, glass, & carbon
fiber-reinforced epoxy
wood ( fiber)
composites, with 60 vol%
fibers.
1
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Microstructural Origins of Plasticity

• Slip, Climb and Slide of atoms in the crystal
structure.
• Slip and Climb occur at Dislocations and Slide
occurs at Grain Boundaries.
t

t
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Ductility
measure of the degree of plastic deformation L -L
that has been sustained at fracture % EL = f o x 100
• Plastic tensile strain at failure: L
o

smaller %EL
Engineering
tensile
stress, s larger %EL Lo
Ao
Af Lf
Adapted from Fig. 6.13,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Engineering tensile strain, e

• Another ductility measure: Ao - Af

%RA = x 100
Ao
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Ductile Vs Brittle Materials

• Only Ductile materials will exhibit necking.
• Ductile if EL%>8% (approximately)
• Brittle if EL% < 5% (approximately)
Engineering Stress

Engineering Strain
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Typical Mechanical Properties

Metals in annealed (soft) condition

Material Yield Stress Ultimate Ductility Elastic Modulus Poisson’s

(MPa) Stress (MPa) EL% (MPa) Ratio
1040 Steel 350 520 30 207000 0.30
1080 Steel 380 615 25 207000 0.30
2024 Al Alloy 100 200 18 72000 0.33
316 Stainless Steel 210 550 60 195000 0.30
70/30 Brass 75 300 70 110000 0.35
6-4 Ti Alloy 942 1000 14 107000 0.36
AZ80 Mg Alloy 285 340 11 45000 0.29
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Summary
• Stress and strain: These are size-independent
measures of load and displacement, respectively.
• Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often
shows a linear relation between stress and strain.
To minimize deformation, select a material with a
large elastic modulus (E or G).
• Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation
behavior occurs when the tensile (or compressive)
uniaxial stress reaches sy.
• Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit
volume of material.
• Ductility: The plastic strain at failure.
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Problems
A cylindrical metal specimen having an original diameter of
12.8 mm (0.505 in.) and gauge length of 50.80 mm (2.000 in.)
is pulled in tension until fracture occurs. The diameter at the
point of fracture is 8.13 mm (0.320 in.), and the fractured
gauge length is 74.17 mm(2.920 in.). Calculate the ductility in
terms of percent reduction in area and percent elongation.