Mechanical Properties

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• Stress and strain: What are they and why are
they used instead of load and deformation?
• Elastic behavior: When loads are small, how much
deformation occurs? What materials deform least?
• Plastic behavior: At what point does permanent
deformation occur? What materials are most
resistant to permanent deformation?
• Toughness and ductility: What are they and how
do we measure them?

Chapter 6 - 1
 Elastic Deformation
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload

bonds
stretch

return to
initial
d
F
F Linear-
elastic
Elastic means reversible! Non-Linear-
elastic
d
Chapter 6 - 2
 Plastic Deformation (Metals)
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
bonds
stretch planes
& planes still
shear sheared

dplastic
delastic + plastic

F
F
Plastic means permanent! linear linear
elastic elastic
d
dplastic
Chapter 6 - 3
 Engineering Stress
• Tensile stress, s: • Shear stress, t:
Ft Ft F

Area, A Area, A Fs

Fs
Ft
Fs Ft
Ft lb f N t= F
s= = 2 or 2
Ao
Ao in m
original area
before loading
 Stress has units:
N/m2 or lbf/in2
Chapter 6 - 4
 Common States of Stress
• Simple tension: cable
F F
A o = cross sectional
area (when unloaded)
F
s= s s
Ao
Ski lift (photo courtesy
• Torsion (a form of shear): drive shaft P.M. Anderson)

M Fs Ao
Ac
Fs
t =
Ao
M
2R Note: t = M/AcR here.
Chapter 6 - 5
 OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (1)
• Simple compression:

Ao

Canyon Bridge, Los Alamos, NM

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

F
s=
Note: compressive
Balanced Rock, Arches structure member
National Park
(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
Ao (s < 0 here).

Chapter 6 - 6
OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (2)
• Bi-axial tension: • Hydrostatic compression:

Pressurized tank Fish under water (photo courtesy

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
P.M. Anderson)
sq > 0

sz > 0 sh< 0

Chapter 6 - 7
 Engineering Strain
• Tensile strain: • Lateral strain:
d/2
-dL
e = d eL =
Lo Lo wo
wo

dL /2
• Shear strain:
q
x g = x/y = tan q

y 90º - q
Strain is always
90º dimensionless.
Adapted from Fig. 6.1 (a) and (c), Callister 7e. Chapter 6 - 8
 Stress-Strain Testing
• Typical tensile test • Typical tensile
machine specimen

Adapted from
extensometer specimen Fig. 6.2,
Callister 7e.

gauge
length

Adapted from Fig. 6.3, Callister 7e. (Fig. 6.3 is taken from H.W.
Hayden, W.G. Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The Structure and Properties of
Materials, Vol. III, Mechanical Behavior, p. 2, John Wiley and Sons,
New York, 1965.) Chapter 6 - 9
 Stress & Strain: Axial Loading

• Suitability of a structure or machine may depend on the deformations in

the structure as well as the stresses induced under loading. Statics
analyses alone are not sufficient.

• Considering structures as deformable allows determination of member

forces and reactions which are statically indeterminate.

• Determination of the stress distribution within a member also requires

consideration of deformations in the member.

• Chapter 2 is concerned with deformation of a structural member under

axial loading. Later chapters will deal with torsional and pure bending
loads.

Chapter 6 -2 - 10
 Normal Strain

P 2P P P
s = = stress s= = s=
A 2A A A
d d 2d d
e= = normal strain e= e= =
L L 2L L
Chapter 6 -2 - 11
Stress-Strain Test

Chapter 6 -2 - 12
Stress-Strain Diagram: Ductile Materials

Chapter 6 -2 - 13
Stress-Strain Diagram: Brittle Materials

Chapter 6 -2 - 14
Elastic vs. Plastic Behavior

• If the strain disappears when the

stress is removed, the material is
said to behave elastically.

• The largest stress for which this

occurs is called the elastic limit.

• When the strain does not return

to zero after the stress is
removed, the material is said to
behave plastically.

Chapter 6 -2 - 15
 Super Plasticity
• A state in which solid crystalline material is
deformed well beyond its usual breaking point,
usually over about 600% during tensile deformation
• The strain rate sensitivity is low at low temperature
(T < 0.5 Tm) but increases at higher temperature.
• This is understandable, as atomic motion is more
vigorous at higher temperature, diffusion is faster.
• High strain rate sensitivity is usually associated with
larger strain to failure.

Chapter 6 -
 Super Plasticity
• In a tensile experiment if a random cross section
decreases in diameter, the strain rate at that cross
section increases, with enough strain rate sensitivity
the section becomes harder and no further
reduction leading to failure occurs.
• In fine grained (<10 µm) materials close to Tm very
large strain rate sensitivity and strain to failure (up
to 100-fold elongation) can be observed. This is
called superplasticity. It depends on grain boundary
sliding, rather than dislocation mechanisms.
• Nanocrystalline materials contain many grain
boundaries, superplasticity should be more easily
achieved.
Chapter 6 -
 Superplasticity of electrodeposited nc Ni and
nc Al-1420 alloy and Ni3Al by severe plastic deformation

Notice that superplasticity was achieved at a

temperature much below typical for
conventional materials; 350°C for Ni
corresponds to 0.36 Tm!

McFadden et al. (UC Davis, Ufa, Russia)

Nature 398 (1999) 684-686 Chapter 6 -
Fatigue

• Fatigue properties are shown on

S-N diagrams.

• A member may fail due to fatigue

at stress levels significantly below
the ultimate strength if subjected
to many loading cycles.

• When the stress is reduced below

the endurance limit, fatigue
failures do not occur for any
number of cycles.

Chapter 6 -2 - 19
Deformations Under Axial Loading
• From Hooke’s Law:
s P
s = Ee e= =
E AE

• From the definition of strain:

d
e=
L
• Equating and solving for the deformation,
PL
d =
AE
• With variations in loading, cross-section or
material properties,
PL
d = i i
i Ai Ei

Chapter 6 -2 - 20
 Linear Elastic Properties
• Modulus of Elasticity, E:
(also known as Young's modulus)

• Hooke's Law:
s=Ee s F
E

e
Linear-
elastic F
simple
tension
test

Chapter 6 - 21
 Poisson's ratio, n
eL
• Poisson's ratio, n:

eL
n=- e
e

metals: n ~ 0.33 -n
ceramics: n ~ 0.25
polymers: n ~ 0.40

Units: –n > 0.50 density increases

E: [GPa] or [psi]
–n < 0.50 density decreases
n: dimensionless (voids form)

Chapter 6 - 22
 Mechanical Properties

• Slope of stress strain plot (which is

proportional to the elastic modulus) depends
on bond strength of metal

Chapter 6 - 23
 Other Elastic Properties
t M
• Elastic Shear
modulus, G:
G simple
g torsion
t=Gg test

M
• Elastic Bulk P P
modulus, K:
V V P P
P = -K Vo
Vo K pressure
test: Init.
vol =Vo.
• Special relations for isotropic materials: Vol chg.
= V
E E
G= K=
2(1 + n) 3(1 - 2n)
Chapter 6 - 24
 Young’s Moduli: Comparison
Graphite
Metals Composites
Ceramics Polymers
Alloys /fibers
Semicond
1200
1000 Diamond
800
600
Si carbide
400 Tungsten Al oxide Carbon fibers only
Molybdenum Si nitride
E(GPa) 200
Steel, Ni
Tantalum <111>
CFRE(|| fibers)*
Platinum Si crystal
Cu alloys <100> Aramid fibers only
100 Zinc, Ti
80 Silver, Gold
Glass -soda AFRE(|| fibers)* Based on data in Table B2,
Aluminum Glass fibers only
60
40
Magnesium,
Tin GFRE(|| fibers)* Callister 7e.
Concrete Composite data based on
109 Pa 20 GFRE*
CFRE*
reinforced epoxy with 60 vol%
of aligned
Graphite GFRE( fibers)*
10 carbon (CFRE),
8 CFRE( fibers) *
6 AFRE( fibers) *
aramid (AFRE), or
Polyester glass (GFRE)
4 PET
PS fibers.
PC Epoxy only
2
PP
1 HDPE
0.8
0.6 Wood( grain)
PTFE
0.4

0.2 LDPE Chapter 6 - 25

 Useful Linear Elastic Relationships
• Simple tension: • Simple torsion:
2ML o
d = FL o d = -n Fw o a=
L
EA o EA o pr o4 G
F M = moment
d/2 a = angle of twist
Ao
Lo Lo
wo

2ro
dL /2
• Material, geometric, and loading parameters all
contribute to deflection.
• Larger elastic moduli minimize elastic deflection.
Chapter 6 - 26
 Plastic (Permanent) Deformation
(at lower temperatures, i.e. T < Tmelt/3)

• Simple tension test:

Elastic+Plastic
engineering stress, s at larger stress

Elastic
initially
permanent (plastic)
after load is removed

ep engineering strain, e

plastic strain Adapted from Fig. 6.10 (a),

Callister 7e.

Chapter 6 - 27
 Yield Strength, sy
• Stress at which noticeable plastic deformation has
occurred.
when ep = 0.002
tensile stress, s
sy = yield strength
sy

Note: for 2 inch sample

e = 0.002 = z/z
 z = 0.004 in

engineering strain, e
ep = 0.002 Adapted from Fig. 6.10 (a),
Callister 7e.
Chapter 6 - 28
 Yield Strength : Comparison
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
2000
Steel (4140) qt

1000
Yield strength, sy (MPa)

Ti (5Al-2.5Sn) a

in ceramic matrix and epoxy matrix composites, since

700 W (pure)

since in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

600 Cu (71500) cw
500 Mo (pure)
400 Steel (4140) a
Steel (1020) cd
300
Room T values
Hard to measure ,

Hard to measure,
Al (6061) ag
200 Steel (1020) hr ¨
Ti (pure) a
Ta (pure)
Cu (71500) hr Based on data in Table B4,
Callister 7e.
100 a = annealed
dry
70 PC
hr = hot rolled
60 Al (6061) a Nylon 6,6 ag = aged
50 PET
cd = cold drawn
40 PVC humid
cw = cold worked
PP
30 HDPE qt = quenched & tempered

20

LDPE
Tin (pure) Chapter 6 - 29
10
 Tensile Strength, TS
• Maximum stress on engineering stress-strain curve.
Adapted from Fig. 6.11,
Callister 7e.
TS
F = fracture or
sy
ultimate
engineering

strength
stress

Typical response of a metal

Neck – acts
as stress
concentrator
strain
engineering strain
• Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts.
• Polymers: occurs when polymer backbone chains are
aligned and about to break.
Chapter 6 - 30
 Tensile Strength : Comparison
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
5000 C fibers
Aramid fib
3000 E-glass fib
Tensile strength, TS (MPa)

2000 Steel (4140) qt

AFRE(|| fiber)
1000 W (pure) Diamond GFRE(|| fiber)
Ti (5Al-2.5Sn)aa CFRE(|| fiber)
Steel (4140)
Cu (71500) cw Si nitride
Cu (71500) hr Al oxide
Steel (1020)
300 ag
Al (6061) a
Ti (pure)
200 Ta (pure) Room Temp. values
Al (6061) a
100 Si crystal wood(|| fiber) Based on data in Table B4,
<100> Nylon 6,6
Glass-soda PC PET Callister 7e.
40 Concrete PVC GFRE( fiber) a = annealed
PP CFRE( fiber)
30 hr = hot rolled
AFRE( fiber)
HDPE ag = aged
20 Graphite
LDPE cd = cold drawn
cw = cold worked
10 qt = quenched & tempered
AFRE, GFRE, & CFRE =
aramid, glass, & carbon
fiber-reinforced epoxy
wood ( fiber)
composites, with 60 vol%
fibers.
1 Chapter 6 - 31
 Ductility
Lf - Lo
• Plastic tensile strain at failure: %EL = x 100
Lo
smaller %EL
Engineering
tensile
stress, s larger %EL Ao
Lo Af Lf
Adapted from Fig. 6.13,
Callister 7e.

Engineering tensile strain, e

• Another ductility measure: Ao - Af

%RA = x 100
Ao

Chapter 6 - 32
 Toughness
• Energy to break a unit volume of material
• Approximate by the area under the stress-strain
curve.
Engineering small toughness (ceramics)
tensile large toughness (metals)
stress, s
Adapted from Fig. 6.13, very small toughness
Callister 7e. (unreinforced polymers)

Engineering tensile strain, e

Brittle fracture: elastic energy

Ductile fracture: elastic + plastic energy
Chapter 6 - 33
 Resilience, Ur
• Ability of a material to store energy
– Energy stored best in elastic region

ey
Ur =  sde
0
If we assume a linear
stress-strain curve this
simplifies to

1
Ur @ sy e y
2
Adapted from Fig. 6.15,
Callister 7e.
Chapter 6 - 34
 Elastic Strain Recovery

Adapted from Fig. 6.17,

Callister 7e.

Chapter 6 - 35
• Many metals exhibit nearly linear elastic behavior at low strain
magnitudes.
• Rubbers exhibit Hyper-elastic behavior, and they remain elastic up
to large strain values (often up to 100% strain and beyond).
• For metals, the yield stress usually occurs at .05% - .1% of the
material’s Elastic Modulus.

• There is almost no material showing the exact elastic-perfect plastic

behavior.
• Perfectly Plastic can be used as an approximation which may be
appropriate for some design processes.

Chapter 6 -
 ultimate strength
(maximum stress)

ultimate failure
initial yield (maximum strain

Chapter 6 -
 Loading/unloading
behavior

New yield
stress
Initial
yield
stress

Perfect plastic: it is constant.

During the Plastic strain
Total
plastic loadaing, plastic strain
by increasing Hardening: it increases.
total strain:
1) The plastic strain increases. Softening: it decreases.
2) What about the elastic strain? Elastic strain is proportional to
Chapter 6 -
stress.
Chapter 6 -
Loading/Unloading
behavior

Chapter 6 -
Loading/Unloading
behavior

Chapter 6 -
Loading/Unloading
behavior

This is more common behavior in material plasticity, for example in metals.

When the material has already been yielded, it yields earlier in the opposite
direction. This effect is referred to as the Bauschinger effect.
Chapter 6 -
 .

• Isotropic hardening is commonly used to model drawing or other

metal forming operations.

• For many materials, the kinematic hardening model gives a better

representation of loading/unloading behavior than the isotropic
hardening model. For cyclic loading, however, the kinematic
hardening model cannot represent either cyclic hardening or cyclic
softening.

Chapter 6 -
 Hardness
• Resistance to permanently indenting the surface.
• Large hardness means:
--resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in
compression.
--better wear properties.
apply known force measure size
e.g., of indent after
10 mm sphere removing load

Smaller indents
D d mean larger
hardness.

most brasses easy to machine cutting nitrided

plastics Al alloys steels file hard tools steels diamond

increasing hardness
Chapter 6 - 44
 Hardness: Measurement
• Rockwell
– No major sample damage
– Each scale runs to 130 but only useful in range
20-100.
– Minor load 10 kg
– Major load 60 (A), 100 (B) & 150 (C) kg
• A = diamond, B = 1/16 in. ball, C = diamond

• HB = Brinell Hardness
– TS (psia) = 500 x HB
– TS (MPa) = 3.45 x HB

Chapter 6 - 45
 Hardness: Measurement
Table 6.5

Chapter 6 - 46
 True Stress & Strain
Note: S.A. changes when sample stretched

• True stress sT = F Ai s T = s 1 + e 
• True Strain eT = ln i  o  e T = ln1 + e 

Adapted from Fig. 6.16,

Callister 7e.

Chapter 6 - 47
 Hardening
• An increase in sy due to plastic deformation.
s
large hardening
sy
1
sy small hardening
0

e
• Curve fit to the stress-strain response:
hardening exponent:
sT = K eT  n n = 0.15 (some steels)
to n = 0.5 (some coppers)
“true” stress (F/A) “true” strain: ln(L/Lo)
Chapter 6 - 48
 Variability in Material Properties
• Elastic modulus is material property
• Critical properties depend largely on sample flaws
(defects, etc.). Large sample to sample variability.
• Statistics
n
 xn
– Mean x=
n
1
n 2
x i - x  
2

– Standard Deviation s=

 n -1 
 
where n is the number of data points
Chapter 6 - 49
 Design or Safety Factors
• Design uncertainties mean we do not push the limit.
• Factor of safety, N Often N is
sy between
sworking = 1.2 and 4
N
• Example: Calculate a diameter, d, to ensure that yield does
not occur in the 1045 carbon steel rod below. Use a
factor of safety of 5.
d
sy
sworking = 1045 plain
carbon steel:
N sy = 310 MPa Lo
220 ,000 N 5 TS = 565 MPa

p d2 / 4
F = 220,000N
d = 0.067 m = 6.7 cm
Chapter 6 - 50
 Summary
• Stress and strain: These are size-independent
measures of load and displacement, respectively.
• Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often
shows a linear relation between stress and strain.
To minimize deformation, select a material with a
large elastic modulus (E or G).
• Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation
behavior occurs when the tensile (or compressive)
uniaxial stress reaches sy.
• Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit
volume of material.
• Ductility: The plastic strain at failure.

Chapter 6 - 51