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Introduction
Tensile test
True stress - true strain (flow curve)
mechanical properties:
- Resilience
- Ductility
- Toughness
- Hardness
1
Introduction
One of the oldest and most important groups of
manufacturing process is plastic deformation (shaping
materials by applying forces by various means), also known
as deformation process, it includes bulk deformation
processes:
1. Forging
2. Rolling
3. Extrusion
4. Rod and wire drawing
Sheet metal-forming processes (cutting, bending, drawing
and general press working).
This chapter deals with mechanical behavior of the material
during plastic deformation 2
Introduction
In stretching a piece of metal to make an object such as
an automobile fender or a length of wire, the material is
subjected to tension.
A solid cylindrical piece of metal is forged to make a
turbine disk, subjecting the material to compression.
Sheet metal undergoes shearing stresses when for
example, a hole is punched through its cross section.
In all these processes, the material is subjected to one
or more of the three basic modes of deformation,
namely, tension, compression and shear.
3
Introduction
7
PROPERTIES vs.
CHARACTERISTICS
PROPERTIES are basic (or essential)
elements or attributes, owned or
possessed by something. Usually, the
properties are concrete, intrinsic and
objective.
CHARACTERISTICS are prominent
aspects, qualities or features of
something. Normally these are extrinsic
and subjective. 8
PROPERTIES vs.
CHARACTERISTICS
A characteristic is how something is; how it
behaves, appears, interacts, etc. A property is
the foundation of something. Properties never
change. They are the basic make up of
something. Properties are concrete;
characteristics change.
For example, the characteristic of iron is that
it is hard while its property is that its melting
point is 1811K.
9
Oxidation versus Corrosion.
They are essentially the same thing.
Oxidation is the process where electrons (which bind atoms
together to create materials) are drawn away by free oxygen
molecules which are relatively unstable and looking for
available electrons [rust forms on metal].
Corrosion is very similar, in that when material such as
steel is exposed to an environment that causes it to come
into contact with either a liquid, or dissimilar metal, a
galvanic reaction occurs where molecules seek to find a
balance between unequal numbers of electrons, the material
giving up more electrons tends to show a greater rate of
corrosion. iron's major drawback as a construction material
is that it reacts with moist air (in a process called corrosion)
10
Concepts of tests
The mechanical behavior may be ascertained by a
simple stress–strain test.
The test is conducted for metals at room temperature.
Destructive test (tests are carried out to the specimen's
failure, in order to understand a specimen's structural
performance or material behavior under different loads)
There are three principal ways in which a load may be
applied:
Tension
compression
Shear
In engineering practice many loads are torsional rather
11
than pure shear
Concepts of tests
12
Engineering Stress
• Tensile stress, s: • Shear stress, t:
Ft Ft F
Area, A Area, A Fs
Fs
Ft
F
t= s F Ft
Ft lb f N
s= = 2 or 2
Ao
Ao in m
original area
before loading
Stress has units:
N/m2 or lbf/in2
Chapter 6 - 13
Engineering Strain
• Tensile strain: • Lateral strain:
d/2
-dL
e = d eL =
Lo Lo wo
wo
dL /2
• Shear strain:
q
x g = x/y = tan q
y 90º - q
Strain is always
90º dimensionless.
Adapted from Fig. 6.1 (a) and (c), Callister 7e. Chapter 6 - 14
Common States of Stress
• Simple tension: cable
F F
Ao = cross sectional
area (when unloaded)
F
s= s s
Ao
Ski lift (photo courtesy
• Torsion (a form of shear): drive shaft P.M. Anderson)
M Fs Ao
Ac
Fs
t =
Ao
M
2R Note: t = M/AcR here.
Chapter 6 - 15
OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (1)
• Simple compression:
Ao
F
s=
Note: compressive
Balanced Rock, Arches structure member
National Park
(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
Ao
Chapter 6 - 16
OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (2)
• Bi-axial tension: • Hydrostatic compression:
sz > 0 sh< 0
Chapter 6 - 17
Tension
One of the most common mechanical stress–strain
tests is performed in tension.
The tension test can be used to ascertain several
mechanical properties of materials that are important
in design.
1. Strength: Yielding and yield strength.
2. Ductility,
3. Toughness,
4. Elastic modulus or Young’s modulus (E) (the
stiffness of the material)
5. Modulus of resilience (U) : (the specific energy that
the material can store elastically).
18
Tensile-Test Specimen and Machine
• A specimen is deformed, usually to fracture, with a
gradually increasing tensile load that is applied uniaxially
along the long axis of a specimen.
• Normally, the cross section is circular, but rectangular
specimens are also used.
• The standard diameter is approximately 12.8 mm (0.5 in.)
• The standard length of the specimen is 50 mm
• Test is done according to American Society for Testing and
Materials (ASTM).
19
Stress-Strain Testing
• Typical tensile test • Typical tensile
machine specimen
Adapted from
extensometer specimen Fig. 6.2,
Callister 7e.
gauge
length
Adapted from Fig. 6.3, Callister 7e. (Fig. 6.3 is taken from H.W.
Hayden, W.G. Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The Structure and Properties of
Materials, Vol. III, Mechanical Behavior, p. 2, John Wiley and Sons,
New York, 1965.) Chapter 6 - 20
Tensile-Test Specimen and Machine
Figure 2.1 (a) A standard tensile-test specimen before and after pulling, showing original and final
gage lengths. (b) A typical tensile-testing machine.
21
Deformation (engineering)
In materials science, deformation refers to any changes in the
shape or size of an object due to:-
The first case can be a result of tensile (pulling) forces,
compressive (pushing) forces, shear, bending or torsion
(twisting).
In the second case, the most significant factor, which is
determined by the temperature, is the mobility of the structural
defects such as grain boundaries, point vacancies, line and
screw dislocations, stacking faults and twins in both crystalline
and non-crystalline solids. The movement or displacement of
such mobile defects is thermally activated, and thus limited by
the rate of atomic diffusion
Deformation is often described as strain.
22
Types of deformation
Depending on the type of material, size and geometry of the object, and
the forces applied, various types of deformation may result.
The image to the right shows the engineering stress vs. strain diagram for
a typical ductile material such as steel. Different deformation modes may
occur under different conditions, as can be depicted using a deformation
mechanism map.
23
Types of deformation
1. Elastic deformation
bonds
stretch
return to
initial
d
F
F Linear-
elastic
Elastic means reversible! Non-Linear-
elastic
d
Chapter 6 -
29
Elastic Properties
• Macroscopic elastic strain is manifested as small
changes in the interatomic spacing and the stretching of
interatomic bonds. Thus, the magnitude of E is a
measure of the resistance to atoms separation, that is,
the interatomic bonding forces.
Chapter 6 - 30
Tensile Test
When increasing the load beyond
the yield point, the specimen
begins to yield; that is, it begins
to undergo plastic (permanent)
deformation, and the relationship
between the stress and strain is
no longer linear.
For most materials the rate of
change of the slope of the stress-
strain curve from linear to non-
linear up to yield point is very
small, thus the determination of
the yield point, Y, can be
difficult
Yield point determination will be
31
discussed later
Plastic Deformation (Metals)
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
bonds
stretch p lanes
& planes still
shear sheared
dplastic
delastic + plastic
F
F
Plastic means permanent! linear linear
elastic elastic
d
dplastic
Chapter 6 - 32
Tensile Test
Its important to note that yielding dose not necessarily
mean failure.
In the design of structures and load-bearing members,
yielding is not acceptable since it leads to permanent
deformation [ it will not do its functionality].
However, yielding is necessary in metalworking
process, such as forging, rolling and sheet-metal
forming operations, where materials have to be
subjected to permanent deformation to develop the
desired part shape
33
Tensile Test
As the specimen
continuous to elongate
under increasing the
load beyond Y, its cross-
sectional area decreases
permanently and
uniformly throughout its
gage length.
34
Tensile Test
If the specimen is unloaded from a
stress level higher than Y, the curve
follows a straight line downward and
parallel to the original elastic slope as
shown.
Some fraction of the total deformation
is recovered as elastic strain.
Elastic
initially
permanent (plastic)
after load is removed
ep engineering strain, e
Chapter 6 - 36
Loading and Unloading of Tensile-Test Specimen
slope
E = ……..
spring back
……………...
Note that, during unloading, in bending
the curve follows a path
parallel to the original elastic
slope.
TS
F = fracture or
sy
ultimate
engineering
strength
stress
42
Linear Elastic Properties
• Modulus of Elasticity, E (also known as Young's modulus):
E can be thought as the stiffness, or the resistance to elastic
deformation.
• Hooke's Law:
s=Ee s F
E
e
Linear-
elastic F
simple
tension
test
Chapter 6 - 43
Stress-Strain Curves
Modulus of Elasticity or
Young’s modulus (E) = Slope
U : has the units of Energy per unit volume (N-m/ m ^3), and indicates
46
the specific energy that the material can store elastically.
Resilience
Ability of material to absorb energy during elastic deformation and
then to give it back when unloaded.
U r = s de
0
s
y s 2
y
U r = 12 s ye y = 12 s y =
E 2E
Units are J/m3
Stress-Strain Curve
• Engineering stress
s = P/Ao
• Engineering strain
e = (l- lo) / lo
• Measures of ductility
% elongation
(lf - lo) / lo x 100
A typical stress- strain curve obtained
from a tension test, showing various % Reduction area
features.
(Af - Ao) / Ao x 100
Engineering Stress-Strain
Engineering stress --- the ratio of the applied
load P to the original cross-sectional area A0
P
Engineering Stress (σ) =
A0
(l - l0 )
Engineering Strain (e) =
l0
49
Engineering Stress-Strain
Engineering Strain =
(l - l0 )
e=
l0
50
Mechanical Properties of Various Materials
at Room Temperature
TABLE 2.2 Mechanical Properties of Various Materials at Room Temperature
Elongation
in 50 mm
Metals (Wrought) E (GPa) Y (MPa) UTS (MPa) (%)
Aluminum and its alloys 69–79 35–550 90–600 45–4
Copper and its alloys 105–150 76–1100 140–1310 65–3
Lead and its alloys 14 14 20–55 50–9
Magnesium and its alloys 41–45 130–305 240–380 21–5
Molybdenum and its alloys 330–360 80–2070 90–2340 40–30
Nickel and its alloys 180–214 105–1200 345–1450 60–5
Steels 190–200 205–1725 415–1750 65–2
Titanium and its alloys 80–130 344–1380 415–1450 25–7
Tungsten and its alloys 350–400 550–690 620–760 0
Nonmetallic materials
Ceramics 70–1000 — 140–2600 0
Diamond 820–1050 — — —
Glass and porcelain 70-80 — 140 —
Rubbers 0.01–0.1 — — —
Thermoplastics 1.4–3.4 — 7–80 1000–5
Thermoplastics, reinforced 2–50 — 20–120 10–1
Thermosets 3.5–17 — 35–170 0
Boron fibers 380 — 3500 0
Carbon fibers 275–415 — 2000–3000 0
Glass fibers 73–85 — 3500–4600 0
Kevlar fibers 62–117 — 2800 0
Note: In the upper table the lowest values for E, Y, and UTS and the highest values for elongation are for pure metals.
Multiply gigapascals (GPa) by 145,000 to obtain pounds per square in. (psi), megapascals (MPa) by 145 to obtain psi.
51
True Stress and True Strain
True stress --- is the ratio of the load (P) to the
actual (hence true) or instantaneous cross-section
area (A)
P
True Stress (s) =
A
Where (A) is the instantaneous (true or actual)
cross-sectional area
52
True Stress and True Strain
In tension test, there will be a series of incremental
tension where, for each increment, the specimen is a
little longer than at the preceding stage. Thus, the true
strain, ϵ, can be defined as
• True strain --- the elongation of the specimen in increments of
instantaneous change in length
l dl l
True Strain (e) = l0 l
= ln( )
l0
53
True Stress and True Strain
l Ao Do 2 Do
e = ln( ) = ln( ) = ln( ) = 2 ln( )
lo A D D
55
Engineering Stress vs. True Stress
Since the actual cross-sectional area is reduced, use of the initial
area gives a lower value than the actual one (the ratio is Ao/Ac).
True stress
…….
True stress, s = P/Ac
– P: load Engineering stress
– Ac: current area …….………
True strain, e = ln (lc/lo) s
- lc: current length
- lo: original length
e
Even though the true stress-strain curve gives a more accurate picture of
the breaking strength of a material, it is difficult to obtain measurements
of the actual area in real-time.
Usually, the reported values are the engineering stress.
True fracture strength > tensile strength
but the engineering s - e diagram does not show this
True Stress- Strain Curves
Chapter 6 - 64
Flow stress Yf
s =K e ( ) n
Chapter 6 - 65
Flow stress Yf
Chapter 6 - 66
True Stress & Strain
hardening exponent:
sT = K eT ( )
n n = 0.15 (some steels)
to n = 0.5 (some coppers)
“true” stress (F/A) “true” strain: ln(L/Lo)
Chapter 6 - 67
Hardening
• An increase in sy due to plastic deformation.
s
large hardening
sy
1
sy small hardening
0
Chapter 6 - 68
True Stress-True Strain
Curves
69
Typical Values for K and n at
Room Temperature
TABLE 2.3
K (MPa) n
Aluminum
1100–O 180 0.20
2024–T4 690 0.16
6061–O 205 0.20
6061–T6 410 0.05
7075–O 400 0.17
Brass
70–30, annealed 900 0.49
85–15, cold-rolled 580 0.34
Cobalt-base alloy, heat-treated 2070 0.50
Copper, annealed 315 0.54
Steel
Low-C annealed 530 0.26
4135 annealed 1015 0.17
4135 cold-rolled 1100 0.14
4340 annealed 640 0.15
304 stainless, annealed 1275 0.45
410 stainless, annealed 960 0.10
70
Instability in Tension
σT = σE(1+ ϵE )
ϵT = ln (1+ ϵE)
Not that ϵE = e
73
Yield point determination
Yielding point is determined as the
initial departure from linearity of
stress – strain curve.
In such cases the position of this
point may not be determined
precisely.
As a consequence, a convention has
been established wherein a straight
line is constructed parallel to the
elastic portion of the stress–strain
curve at some specified strain offset,
usually 0.002. The stress
corresponding to the intersection of
this line is defined as the yield
strength σy
The units of yield strength are MPa 74
or psi
Yield point determination
Some steels (low carbon steel) and other
materials exhibit the tensile stress–strain
behavior as shown in Figure.
The elastic–plastic transition is very well
defined and occurs in what is termed a
yield point phenomenon.
At the upper yield point, plastic deformation
is initiated with an actual decrease in
stress.
Continued deformation fluctuates slightly
about some constant stress value, termed
the lower yield point.
For metals that display this effect, the yield
strength is taken as the average stress that
is associated with the lower yield point.
75
Yielding –Yield strength
• There are some materials (e.g., gray
cast iron, concrete, and many
polymers) for which this initial elastic
portion of the stress–strain curve is not
linear
• For this nonlinear behavior, either
tangent or secant modulus is
normally used. Tangent modulus is
taken as the slope of the stress–
strain curve at some specified
level of stress, while secant
modulus represents the slope of a
secant drawn from the origin to
some given point of the – curve.
The determination of these moduli
is illustrated in Figure
76
Temperature Effects on Stress - Strain Curve
Various factors have an influence on the shape of the stress-
strain curves.
The first factor is temperature. Temperature usually
1. Lowers the modulus
of elasticity
2. Lowers yield stress
3. Lower ultimate
tensile strength
4. Increases ductility
and toughness
Increasing temperature
ductility and toughness
yield stress and
the modulus of elasticity
n (strain hardening exponent)
81
Strain rate
86
Superplasticity
Superplasticity: the capability of some materials to
undergo large, uniform elongation prior necking and
fracturing in tension.
The elongation may be on the order of few hundred
percent to as much as 200%.
Common non-metallic materials exhibiting superplastic
behavior are : bubble gum, thermoplastics, and glass (at
elevated temperatures). As a result, glass and
thermoplastics can be formed successful into complex
shapes, such as beverage bottles
Among metals exhibiting superplastic behavior are very
fine grain [10-15µm] titanium alloys and alloys of zinc-
aluminum; when heated, they can elongate to many
times their original length. 87
Values for C and m
88
Ductility
The strain in the specimen at
fracture is a measure of ductility,
that is, how large a strain the material
withstands before fracture
Ductility is the extent of plastic
deformation that the material
undergoes before fracture.
The strain up to the UTS is called
uniform strain.
The elongation at fracture is known as
the total elongation.
The total elongation is measured
between the original gage marks after
the two pieces of the broken specimen
are placed together. 89
Ductility
Lf - Lo
• Plastic tensile strain at failure: %EL = x 100
Lo
smaller %EL
Engineering
tensile
stress, s larger %EL Ao
Lo Af Lf
Chapter 6 - 90
Ductility
Two quantities that are commonly used to define
ductility
1. Elongation
2. Reduction of area
(l f - l0 ) Elongation ranges
Elongation = 100 approximately (10%-60%)
l0
( A0 - A f ) Reduction of Area
Reduction of Area = 100
A0 ranges (20%-90%)
91
Elongation versus % Area
Reduction
Figure 2.4
Approximate
relationship
between elongation
and tensile
reduction of area
for various groups
of metals.
92
TOUGHNESS
Toughness is the area under s - e curve up to fracture.
ef
Toughness = sde
0
Where ϵf is the true strain at fracture.
Chapter 6 - 94
Example 1
• A cable is made of material of (K =
60,000 psi, n = 0.5) Calculate the true
and engineering UTS for this cable prior
to necking.
• σ= Kεn
95
Example 2
• Assume that a material has true stress
– true strain curve given by:
σ = 100,000 ε0.5 psi. Calculate the true
ultimate tensile strength and
engineering UTS of this material.
96
Example 3
• A cable is made of two strands of different
materials, A and B, and cross sections as
follows:
For material A: K=70,000 psi, n=0.5, A0=0.6 in2.
For material B: K=25,000 psi, n=0.5, A0=0.3 in2
Calculate the maximum tensile force that this
cable can withstand.
97
Example 4
98
Compression Test
Many operation in metalworking, such as
forging, rolling, and extrusion, are
performed with the workpiece under
externally applied compressive forces.
The compression test, in which the
specimen is subjected to a compressive
load, can give useful information for these
process, such as
1. stresses required and
2. the behavior of the material under
compression.
The deformation shown in figure is ideal.
The test is usually carried out by
compressing (upsetting) a solid cylindrical
specimen between two flat dies 99
Compression Test
The friction between the
specimen and the die is an
important factor, in that, it causes
barreling because friction
prevents the top and bottom
surfaces from expanding freely.
This phenomena makes it difficult
to obtain relevant data and
construct a compressive stress-
strain curve because:
1. The cross sectional area of the
specimen changes along its
height (barreling effect) With effective lubrication, it is
2. Friction dissipated energy and this possible to minimize friction, and
energy is supplied through an hence barreling to obtain
increased in compressive force. reasonable constant cross sectional
100
area.
Compression Test
by convention, stress and strain are negative
T
Shear stress, t =
2r t
2
r
Shear strain, g =
l
108
Hardness
• Resistance to permanently indenting the surface.
• Large hardness means:
--resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in
compression.
--better wear properties.
apply known force measure size
e.g., of indent after
10 mm sphere removing load
Smaller indents
D d mean larger
hardness.
increasing hardness
Chapter 6 - 109
Hardness Tests
110
Brinell Testing
In the Brinell test, a steel or tungsten carbide ball
10mm in diameter is pressed against a surface with
a load of 500, 1500, or 3000kg.
The Brinell hardness number is defined as the ratio
of the load P to the curved area of indentation
113
RocwellTesting
In Rockwell test, the indenter is pressed on surface,
first with minor load and then with a major load.
The differences in the depth of penetration is a
measure of the hardness.
Rockwell hardness test uses different scales that
employ different loads.
55 HRC is read as : the hardness number is 55
using the C scale
114
The effects of grain size on yield strength
A change in grain size affects the yield strength due to
the dislocations interacting with the grain boundary as
they move.
The boundaries act as obstacles, hindering the
dislocation glide along the slip planes. As subsequent
dislocations move along the same slip plane so that the
dislocations pile-up at the grain boundaries..
The dislocations repel each other, so as the number of
dislocations in the pile-up increases the stress on the
grain boundary increases.
In fact, if there are n dislocations in the pile-up, the
stress at the grain boundary will be n times the applied
115
stress.
The effects of grain size on yield strength
If the grain boundary in a sample gives way at a
stress τ, there needs to be a stress of τ/n applied to
the sample in order to cause the boundary to
collapse.
In a larger grain there will be more dislocations within
the grain, so there will be more dislocations in the
pile-up. Therefore a lower applied stress is required to
produce a local stress great enough to cause the
grain boundary to collapse.
116
The effects of grain size on yield strength
Accurate modelling is difficult, but it is found that the
tensile yield stress, σy, is related to grain diameter, d,
by the Hall-Petch :
117
Grain Size and Material Strength
It was noted that most low-temperature, permanent
deformation of metal comes from the movement of
crystalline imperfections, known as dislocations,
through the grains in the metal..
Given enough stress and thermal energy, dislocations
will easily move throughout the crystalline grains,
resulting in permanent distortion of the grain itself.
However, once a dislocation reaches a grain
boundary, it has nowhere to go. In other words, grain
boundaries stop dislocations.
118
Grain Size and Material Strength
119
Grain Size and Material Strength
Thus, an easy way to improve the strength of a
material is to make the grains as small as possible,
increasing the amount of grain boundary.
Smaller grains have greater ratios of surface area to
volume, which means a greater ratio of grain
boundary to dislocations.
The more grain boundaries that exist, the higher the
strength becomes.
120
Grain Size and Material Strength
The following example illustrates this principle. Figure
shows a crude representation of two grains. For the
sake of simplicity, the grains are illustrated as perfect
rectangular prisms. Each prism is made up of several
cubic units.
121
Grain Size and Material Strength
For the sake of this analysis, each unit contains exactly six dislocations.
For the larger grain, there are 2 x 3 x 4 = 24 cubic units, and the
smaller grain is one cubic unit.
The larger grain will have 24 x 6 = 144 dislocations, and the smaller
grain has six.
The larger grain has a total surface area of 2 x (2 x 4) + 2 x (2 x 3)
+ 2 x (3 x 4) = 52 square units. 122
The smaller grain has a surface area of 6 square units.
Grain Size and Material Strength
For every dislocation in the large grain, there is 0.36 square units of
grain boundary.
In the smaller grain, there is one square unit of grain boundary
for each dislocation.
There is a much greater chance for a dislocation to be stopped at a
grain boundary in the smaller grain. Therefore, the smaller grain
123 is
stronger.
Grain Size and Material Strength
130
Polycrystalline Materials
• Polycrystalline is a collection of many small grains.
- Grain sizes typically range from 1 nm to 2 cm
(i.e., from a few to millions of atomic layers).
Solidification
stages of a
polycrystalline
specimen
135
Isotropy versus anisotropy
If all the grains in the base metal are oriented the
same way, the metal would certainly show signs of
weakness in a particular direction. The same would
be true if there were just one or two grains across a
critical dimension.
However, with many grains oriented in random
directions, the microscopic directionality of strength
would tend to be averaged out. This would provide
equal strength in all directions.
136
Single crystal
A single crystal is a material in which the crystal lattice
of the entire sample is continuous, with no grain
boundaries . The absence of the defects associated with
grain boundaries can give unique properties, particularly
mechanical, which can also be anisotropic.
Anisotropy is the property of being directionally
dependent, as opposed to isotropy, which implies
identical properties in all directions. It can be defined as
a difference, when measured along different axes, in a
material's physical or mechanical properties
(absorbance, refractive index, conductivity, tensile
strength, etc.) An example of anisotropy is the wood,
which is easier to split along its grain than against it.
137
Grain boundary
A grain boundary is the interface between two grains, or
crystallites , in a polycrystalline material.
Grain boundaries are defects in the crystal structure, and
tend to decrease the electrical and thermal conductivity of
the material.
Most grain boundaries are preferred sites for the onset of
corrosion and for the precipitation of new phases from the
solid.
They are also important to many of the mechanisms of creep.
On the other hand, grain boundaries disrupt the motion
of Dislocations through a material, so reducing crystallite size
is a common way to improve strength, as described by
the Hall-Petch relationship.
138
Characteristics of Grain Boundaries
1. Grain boundaries don’t contain slip planes
2. The thickness of grain boundaries is between 2 – 5
atoms
3. Grain boundaries don’t posses crystalline structure and
that is why it doesn't have slip planes as it has a
amorphous structure
4. Grain boundaries are not simple planes but they are
transition zones between adjacent crystals of different
orientations, these transition zones which may be of
several atoms thickness don’t posses regular planes and
consequently act as barriers to the movement of
dislocations
5. Grain boundaries contain many inclusions (impurities).
These inclusions some times weakness the strength of
Characteristics of Grain Boundaries
141
Relationship between Hardness and Strength