CE 234

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
CHAPTER 2
Stress and Strain – Axial Loading
Lecture By: Dr. Özgür KÖYLÜOĞLU, Yeditepe University

Book: Mechanics of Materials, 6th Edition, by Ferdinand P. Beer; E. Russel

Johnston, Jr.; John T. DeWolf, David F. Mazurek, Mc Graw Hill.

Presentation Reference: Lecture Notes by J. Walt Oler, Texas Tech University on

Mechanics of Materials, 3rd Edition, by Ferdinand P. Beer; E. Russel Johnston,
Jr.; John T. DeWolf, Mc Graw Hill.
 Stress and Strain – Axial Loading
• Suitability of a structure or machine may depend on the
deformations in the structure as well as the stresses induced
under loading.
• Statics analyses alone are not sufficient, since it is based on
undeformable structures.
• Determination of the stress distribution within a member
also requires consideration of deformations in the member.
• Considering structures as deformable allows determination
of member forces and reactions which are statically Load-deformation diagram:
indeterminate.
• This Chapter is concerned with deformation of a structural
member under axial loading. P
s= = stress
A
d
e= = normal strain 2
L
 Normal Strain
•Normal strain in a rod under axial loading is defined as the
deformation per unit length of that rod.

P 2P P P
s= = stress s= = s=
A 2A A A
d d 2d d
e= = normal strain e= e= =
L L 2L L 3
 Normal Strain - Definition
• Normal strain at a given point Q is;
Δδ dδ
ε = lim =
Δx→0 Δx dx

• Consider a bar of length L= 60 cm with

uniform cross-section, which undergoes a deformation δ=150 μm (micrometers).
The corresponding strain is;

δ 150x10 −6 m
ε= = = 250x10 −6 m / m = 250x10 −6
L 0.600m

• We may express the strain calculated above as 250 μ

• Strain is a dimensionless quantity. 4
 Stress-Strain Diagram

Typical Tensile-Test
Tensile Test Machine Specimen, L0= gage length
5
 Stress-Strain Diagram
• Plotting the stress σ =P/A0 against the strain ε=δ/L0, we obtain a
curve that is characteristic of the properties of the material. This
curve is called stress-strain diagram.
• Load P and deformation δ=L-L0 is measured and recorded
during the test, stress and strain is calculated for each pair of
load and deformation and plotted.
• Stress-strain diagrams of different materials vary widely.
• Two broad categories:
Ø Ductile materials
Ø Brittle materials
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D23hzv-3Tf0

6
 Stress-Strain Diagram of Ductile Materials
Ductile materials (e.g. structural steel or many alloys of other
materials), are characterized by their ability to yield at normal
temperatures. After a certain maximum value of the load (ultimate
strength) is reached, the diameter of the specimen begins to
decrease, a phenomenon known as necking, then elongates at lower
loads until rupture (breaking strength). (Rupture surface 45o)

420 420
σ (MPa)

280 280

σ (MPa)
140 140

7
http://www.esm.psu.edu/courses/emch13d/design/animation/Fnecking.html
 Stress-Strain Diagram of Brittle Materials
• Brittle materials, such cast iron, glass and stone, concrete are characterized by the
fact that rupture occurs without any noticeable change in the rate of elongation.
• Therefore (ultimate strength) = (breaking strength) for brittle materials. Also,
strain at rupture is much smaller in brittle materials than for ductile materials.
• (Rupture surface is perpendicular to the load è normal stresses responsible for
failure)

8
 Determination of Yield Strength by Offset Method

When yield point cannot be determined from the stress-strain diagram, at ε=0.002
(0.2%) of strain, a line parallel to initial straight-line is drawn to find the yield
strength.

9
 Ductility
A standard measure of ductility of a material is its percent elongation defined as;

Percent elongation= 100

LB − L0
L0
where LB is the final length of the specimen at rupture.

Another measure of ductility, which is sometimes used is the percent

reduction in area, defined as;
A0 − AB
Percent reduction in area = 100
A0
where AB is the minimum cross sectional area at rupture.

10
 Stress-Strain Diagram Under Compression
• Stress-strain diagram of ductile materials under compression will be the same for
the initial straight-line portion and yield strength will be the same for both
tension and compression.
• However, for larger strain values the diagram will be different and necking will
not occur in compression.
• For most brittle materials, ultimate strength in
compression is much larger than the ultimate
strength in tension. This is due to the presence
of flaws, such as microscopic cracks or
cavities, weakening the material in tension,
while not affecting the resistance in
compression.

Stress-Strain Diagram of Concrete

11
Hooke’s Law; Modulus of Elasticity
• Below the yield stress;
σ = Eε
known as Hooke’s Law.
E= Modulus of Elasticity
(Young’s Modulus)
• Physical properties of structural metals
(strength, ductility, corrosion resistance, ..)
can be affected by alloying, heat
treatment, and manufacturing process but
their Modulus of Elasticity (stiffness) are
the same.

12
 Isotropic vs. Anisotropic Materials
• If stress-strain relationship is independent of the direction of loading isotropic
material
• If material properties depend on the direction of loading anisotropic material
(e.g. fiber reinforced composite materials- fibers of graphite, glass, polymers
in a resin matrix)

13
 Elastic vs. Plastic Behavior
• If the strain disappears when the stress is removed,
the material is said to behave elastically.
• The largest stress for which material behaves
elastically is called the elastic limit of the material.
• When forced beyond elastic limit, and load is
removed, the strain does not return to zero,
indicating plastic deformation (permenant set).
• When loaded after unloading the new
elastic/proportional limit is higher due to strain
hardening, but ductility should be measured from D
(decreased).

14
 Elastic vs. Plastic Behavior –
Baushinger Effect
• After unloading if material is loaded in compression, point H is reached where
the stress is equal to –σy. Stress strain diagram of this portion is curved and
does not show any clearly defined yield point. This is called Baushinger efffect.

15
 Repeated Loadings; Fatique
• Fatique results in strength lower than
static breaking strength
• Fatique failure is of brittle nature.
• Tests for repeated successive loadings
under different stress levels plotted as
a σ-n curve.
• Endurance limit is the stress for which
failure does not occur, even for an idefinitely
large number of loading cycles (for
structural steel it is about half the ultimate
strength of steel).
16
Deformations Under Axial Loading
• From Hooke’s Law:
σ P
σ = Eεand ε= =
E AE
• From the definition of strain:
δ
ε=
L
• Equating and solving for the deformation,
PL
d=
AE
• For variations in loading, cross-section or material
properties,
PL
d =å i i
P3 i Ai Ei
P1 P2 17
Deformations Under Axial Loading
• For variable cross section or variable load
along the length, general formula becomes;
Pdx
dδ = ε dx =
AE
L
Pdx
δ= ∫ AE
0

18
 Example Problem 2.01
A=581 mm2 A=194 mm2

120 kN
300 kN 180 kN
400 mm
300 mm 300 mm

120 kN
300 kN 180 kN

120 kN

120 kN
180 kN

120 kN
300 kN 180 kN 19
 Sample Problem 2.1.
The rigid bar BDE is supported by two links AB and CD.
Link AB is made of aluminum (E = 70 GPa) and has a cross-sectional area of 500mm2. Link CD is
made of steel (E = 200 GPa) and has a cross-sectional area of (600 mm2).
For the 30-kN force shown, determine the deflection a) of B, b) of D, and c) of E.

SOLUTION:
• Apply a free-body analysis to the bar BDE to
find the forces exerted by links AB and DC.
• Evaluate the deformation of links AB and
DC or the displacements of B and D.
• Work out the geometry to find the deflection
at E given the deflections at B and D.

20
 Sample Problem 2.1.
SOLUTION: Deflection of B:
PL
dB =
Free body: Bar BDE AE
(- 60 ´103 N )(0.3 m )
=
(500 ´10-6 m2 )(70 ´109 Pa )
= -514 ´10- 6 m

d B = 0.514 mm ­

åMB = 0 Deflection of D:
0 = -(30 kN ´ 0.6 m ) + FCD ´ 0.2 m dD =
PL
AE
FCD = +90 kN tension
(90 ´103 N )(0.4 m )
å MD = 0 =
(600 ´10-6 m2 )(200 ´109 Pa )
0 = -(30 kN ´ 0.4 m ) - FAB ´ 0.2 m
= 300 ´10- 6 m
FAB = -60 kN compression
d D = 0.300 mm ¯ 21
Sample Problem 2.1.
Deflection of E:
BB¢ BH
=
DD¢ HD
0.514 mm (200 mm ) - x
=
0.300 mm x
x = 73.7 mm
EE ¢ HE
=
¢
DD HD
dE
=
(400 + 73.7 )mm
0.300 mm 73.7 mm
d E = 1.928 mm

d E = 1.928 mm ¯
22
 Statically Indeterminate Problems
• Structures for which internal forces and reactions cannot be determined from
statics alone are said to be statically indeterminate.

• A structure will be statically indeterminate whenever it is held by more

supports than are required to maintain its equilibrium.

• Superposition Method: Redundant reactions are defined to eliminate one of the

supports and they must produce deformations compatible with the original
constraints.
• Deformations due to actual loads and redundant reactions are determined
separately and then added or superposed.

δ = δL + δR
23
Example Problem 2.02
A rod of length L, cross sectional area A1 and modulus of
elasticity E1 has been placed inside a tube of same
length L, but of cross-sectional area A2 and modulus of
elasticity E2 (Fig.a).

What is the deformation of the rod and tube when a force P

is exerted on a rigid end plate as shown?

Solution:
Draw Free Body Diagrams
Find deformations.
Put the constraint back to write the equation regarding
deformations.

24
 Example Problem 2.02
Solution:
Example Problem 2.04
Determine the reactions at A and B.
SOLUTION:
• Take reaction at B as redundant and release that
support.
• Consider the deformations caused by loads and the
deformations due to redundant reactions separately.

26
 Example Problem 2.04
• Solve for the deformation δLat B due to the applied loads when the
redundant constraint released, after dividing the bar into four portions.
P1 = 0 P2 = P3 = 600 ´103 N P4 = 900 ´103 N

A1 = A2 = 400 ´10- 6 m 2 A3 = A4 = 250 ´10- 6 m 2

L1 = L2 = L3 = L4 = 0.150 m

Pi Li 1.125 ´109
dL = å =
A
i i iE E
• Solve now for the deformation δR at B due to the redundant reaction,
dividing the bar in two portions,
P1 = P2 = −RB
A1 = 400 ×10 −6 m 2 A2 = 250 ×10 −6 m 2
L1 = L2 = 0.300 m

δR = ∑
Pi Li P1L1 P2 L2
= + =−
(1.95 ×10 3 ) RB
i A E
i i A1 E A2 E E
27
 Example Problem 2.04
• Knowing that total deformation of the bar must be zero;
d = dL +dR = 0

d= -
(
1.125 ´109 1.95 ´103 RB
=0
)
E E
RB = 577 ´103 N = 577 kN
• Now reaction at A can be determined from the free body diagram of the bar;

∑ F = 0; R
y A − 300 kN − 600 kN + RB = 0
RA = 900kN − 577kN = 323kN
R A = 323 kN
RB = 577 kN

28
Problems Involving Temperature
Changes (Thermal Stresses)
• A temperature change results in a change in length or thermal
strain. There is no stress associated with the thermal strain
unless the elongation is restrained by the supports.

• Treat the additional support as redundant and apply the

principle of superposition.
PL
d T = a (DT )L dP =
AE
a = thermal expansion coef.

• The thermal deformation and the deformation from

the redundant support must be compatible.
d = dT + d P = 0 P = −AEα ( ΔT )
PL
a (DT )L + =0 σ=
P
= −Eα ( ΔT )
AE A
29
 Example Problem 2.06
A=750 mm2
A=380 mm2

300 mm 300 mm

Determine the stress in portions AC and CB

of the steel bar shown, when the temperature
of the bar is -45oC, knowing that a close fit
exists at both of the rigid supports when the
temperature is +24oC. (E=200 GPa,
α=11.7x10-6 /oC)

30
 Example Problem 2.06
SOLUTION:
 Example Problem 2.06
SOLUTION:
 Poisson’s Ratio
In all engineering materials the elongation produced by axial force accompanied by
contraction in any transverse direction.
• For an axially loaded slender bar, Hooke’s Law:
s
ex = x s y =sz = 0
E
• For homogeneous and isotropic materials, the
strain must be the same for any transverse
direction. ey = ez ¹ 0
• Poisson’s ratio, υ is defined as
lateral strain εy εz
υ =− =− =−
axial strain εx εx
σx υσ
εx = ;ε y = ε z = − x
E E
Materials considered as homogenous and isotropic.
(Mechanical properties are independent both position and 33
direction)
Example Problem 2.07
A 500-mm long, 16 mm diameter rod
made of homogeneous, isotropic material
is observed to increase in length by 300
μm, and to decrease in diameter by 2.4 μm
when subjected to an axial 12-kN load.
Determine the modulus of elasticity and
Poisson’s ratio of the material.

34
 Example Problem 2.07
SOLUTION:
Multiaxial Loading; Generalized
Hooke’s Law
• For an element subjected to multi-axial loading, the normal strain
components resulting from the stress components may be determined
from the principle of superposition. This requires:
1) strain is linearly related to stress
2) deformations are small and does not affect the conditions of
application of other loads

• With these restrictions, generalized Hooke’s Law:

s x ns y ns z
ex = + - -
E E E
ns x s y ns z
ey = - + -
E E E
ns x ns y sz
ez = - - +
E E E
36
 Example Problem 2.08
s x ns y ns z
ex = + - -
E E E
ns x s y ns z
ey = - + -
50 mm
E E E
ns x ns y sz
ez = - - +
100 mm 75 mm E E E

The steel block shown is subjected to a uniform pressure on all its faces.
Knowing that the change in length of edge AB is -30x10-3 mm, determine
a)The change in length of the other two edges
b)The pressure p applied to the faces of the block.
Assume E=200 GPa and ν=0.29)
37
 Example Problem 2.08
SOLUTION:
Dilatation; Bulk Modulus
• Relative to the unstressed state, the change in volume is:
e = (1+ ε x ) (1+ ε y ) (1+ ε z ) −1 =1+ ε x + ε y + ε z −1
= ε x + ε y + εz
1− 2ν
=
E
(σ x +σ y +σ z )
= dilatation (change in volume per unit volume)
• For element subjected to uniform hydrostatic pressure,
3(1 - 2n ) p
e = -p =-
E k
E
k= = bulk modulus
3(1 - 2n )
• For any engineering material, k > 0 from which it follows;
0 < n < 12
39
 Example Problem 2.09
Determine the change in volume ΔV of the
steel block shown, when it is subjected to
the hydrostatic pressure p=180 MPa.
Assume E=200 GPa and ν=0.29)
50 mm

100 mm 75 mm

SOLUTION:

40
Shearing Strain
• A cubic element subjected to a shear
stress will deform into a rhomboid. The
corresponding shear strain is quantified
in terms of the change in angle between
the sides (Hooke’s Law for shearing
stress and strain)
τ xy = Gγ xy

• A plot of shear stress vs. shear strain is similar the previous

plots of normal stress vs. normal strain except that the
strength values are approximately half. For small strains,
t xy = G g xy t yz = G g yz t zx = G g zx
where G is the modulus of rigidity or shear modulus. 41
Generalized Hooke’s Law for
General Stress Condition
s x ns y ns z
ex = + - -
E E E
ns x s y ns z
ey = - + -
E E E
ns x ns y sz
ez = - - +
E E E
t xy = G g xy t yz = G g yz t zx = G g zx

42
Relation Among E, υ and G
• An axially loaded slender bar will elongate in
the axial direction and contract in the transverse
directions.
• An initially cubic element oriented as in top figure
will deform into a rectangular parallelepiped. The
axial load produces a normal strain.

• If the cubic element is oriented as in the bottom

figure, it will deform into a rhombus. Axial load
also results in a shear strain.

• Components of normal and shear strain are related

(study section 2.15)

E
= (1 + n )
2G
43
 Relation Among E, υ and G

π γ γ γ
tan − tan m 1− tan m 1− m
tan β = 4 2 = 2 = 2
π γ γ γ
1+ tan tan m 1+ tan m 1+ m
4 2 2 2
• From Fig. (c);
1− νε x γm =
(1+ ν ) ε x
= (1+ ν )ε x
τm σ
= (1+ ν ) x
tan β = 1− ν G E
1+ ε x 1+ εx
2
• Recalling, σx= P/A and τm=P/2A; you obtain: E = (1 + n ) 44
2G
 Example Problem 2.5
.

380 mm
380 mm

A circle of diameter 225 mm scribed on an unstressed aluminium plate of

thickness t=18 mm. Forced acting in the plane of the plate later cause normal
stresses σx=84 MPa and σz=140 MPa. Determine the change in
(a) the length of AB, (b) the length of CD, (c) the thickness of the plate, (d) the
volume of the plate (E= 70 GPa, υ= 1/3)
45
 Example Problem 2.5
SOLUTION:
Fiber-Reinforced Composite Materials
• Fiber-reinforced composite materials are formed from
lamina of fibers of graphite, glass, or polymers embedded
in a resin matrix.
• Normal stresses and strains are related by Hooke’s Law
but with directionally dependent moduli of elasticity,

σx σy σz
εx = εy = εz =
Ex Ey Ez
• Transverse contractions are related by directionally
dependent values of Poisson’s ratio, e.g.,
ey e
n xy =- n xz = - z
ex ex
• Materials with directionally dependent mechanical
properties are anisotropic.
47
 Fiber-Reinforced Composite Materials
• Equations similar to Hooke’s Law can be developed for composite materials under multiaxial
loading as follows:

σ x υ yxσ y υ zxσ z τ xy
εx = − − γ xy =
Ex Ey Ez Gxy

υ xyσ x σ y υ zyσ z τ yz
εy = − + − γ yz =
Ex Ey Ez Gyz
τ xz
υ xzσ x υ yzσ y σ z γ xz =
εz = − − + Gxz
Ex Ey Ez

υ xy υ yx υ yz υ zy υ zx υ xz
= = =
Ex Ey E y Ez Ez E x 48
Example Problem 2.11
A 60-mm cube is made from layers of graphite
epoxy with fibers aligned in the x-direction. The
cube is subjected to a compressive load of 140 kN in
the x-dir. Determine the changes in the cube
dimensions, knowing
(a)Cube is free to expand in y- and z-directions
(b) The cube is free to expand in z-direction but
restrained in y-dir. by two frictionless plates.
(Ex= 155 GPa, Ey= 12.10 GPa, Ez= 12.10 GPa,
υxy=0.248, υxz=0.248, υyz=0.458)

49
 Example Problem 2.11
SOLUTION:
 Example Problem 2.11
SOLUTION:
Saint-Venant’s Principle
• Loads transmitted through rigid plates result in
uniform distribution of stress and strain.

• Concentrated loads result in large stresses in the

vicinity of the load application point.

• Stress and strain distributions become uniform

at a relatively short distance (approx. >width)
from the load application points.

• Saint-Venant’s Principle:
Stress distribution may be assumed independent
of the mode of load application except in the
immediate vicinity of load application points.

52
 Stress Concentrations; Hole
Discontinuities of cross section may result in high localized or
concentrated stresses.

s max
K=
s ave
K = Stress-concentration factor
(This procedure applicable as long as proportionality limit is 53
not exceeded)
 Stress Concentrations; Fillet
Discontinuities of cross section may result in high localized or concentrated stresses.

s
K = max
s ave
54
 Example Problem 2.12
Determine the largest axial load
P that can be safely supported by
a flat steel bar consisting of two
portions, both 10 mm thick, and
respectively 40 and 60 mm wide,
connected by fillets of radius r =
8 mm. Assume an allowable
normal stress of 165 MPa.
SOLUTION:
• Determine the geometric ratios and
find the stress concentration factor.
• Find the allowable average normal
stress using the material allowable
normal stress and the stress
concentration factor.
• Apply the definition of normal
stress to find the allowable load.
55
Example Problem 2.12
• Determine the geometric ratios and find the stress
concentration factor.
D 60 mm r 8 mm
= = 1.50 = = 0.20
d 40 mm d 40 mm
K = 1.82
• Find the allowable average normal stress using
the material allowable normal stress and the
stress concentration factor.
s max 165 MPa
s ave = = = 90.7 MPa
K 1.82
• Apply the definition of normal stress to find the
allowable load.
P = Aσ ave = ( 40 mm ) (10 mm ) ( 90.7MPa )
= 36.3×10 3 N = 36.3 kN
56
Elastoplastic Materials
• Previous analyses based on assumption of linear stress-
strain relationship, i.e., stresses below the yield stress
• Assumption is good for brittle material which rupture
without yielding
• If the yield stress of ductile materials is exceeded, then
plastic deformations occur

• Analysis of plastic deformations is simplified by

assuming an idealized elastoplastic material
• Deformations of an elastoplastic material are divided
into elastic and plastic ranges
• Permanent deformations result from loading beyond the
yield stress

57
 Example 2.13
A rod of length L= 500 mm and cross-sectional area A=
60 mm2 is made of an elastoplastic material having a
modulus of elasticity E= 200 Gpa in its elastic range
and a yield point σy= 300 MPa. The rod is subjected to
an axial load until it is stretched 7 mm and the load is
then removed.
What is the resulting permenant set?

δc 7mm
εc = = = 14.0x10 −3
L 500mm
σ y 300x10 6 Pa
εy = = 6
= 1.5x10 −3
E 200x10 Pa

ε D = εc − ε y = 12.5x10 −3 δD = ε D L = (12.5x10 −3 )(500mm) = 6.25mm

58
 Example 2.14

750 mm

A 750 mm cylindrical rod of cross sectional area Ar= 48 mm2 is placed inside a tube of the same
length and of cross sectional area At= 62 mm2. The ends of the rod and tube are attached to a
rigid support on one side, and to a rigid plate on the other, as shown. The rod and tube are both
assumed to be elastoplastic, with moduli of elasticity Er= 210 GPa and Et= 105 GPa and yield
strengths (σr)y = 250 MPa and (σt)y= 310 MPa.
Draw the load-deflection diagram of the rod-tube assembly when a load P is applied to the plate
as shown.
59
 Example 2.14
SOLUTION:
 Example 2.15

75 mm

If the load in the previous problem is increased from zero to 25 kN and

decreased back to zero, determine
a) The maximum elongation of the assembly,
b) The permanent set after the load has been removed.

61
 Example 2.15
SOLUTION:
Plastic Deformations
• Elastic deformation while maximum stress is less than yield stress
s A
P = s ave A = max
K

s A • Maximum stress is equal to the yield stress at the

PY = Y
K maximum elastic loading

• At loadings above the maximum elastic load, a region of plastic

deformations develop near the hole

• As the loading increases, the plastic region expands until the

section is at a uniform stress equal to the yield stress
PU = σ Y A

PU
PY =
K 63
Sample Problem 2.6
Rigid beam ABC is suspended from two steel
rods as shown. By slow application of load Q, the
midpoint B is deflected 10 mm downward and
afterwards the force is slowly removed. Knowing
that steel used is elastoplastic with E=200 GPa
and σy= 300 MPa, determine
(a) the required max value of Q and the
corresponding position of the beam,
(b) final position of the beam.

64
SOLUTION:
Sample Problem 2.6
 Residual Stresses
• When a single structural element is loaded uniformly beyond its yield stress and then
unloaded, it is permanently deformed but all stresses disappear. This is not the general result.

• Residual stresses will remain in a structure after loading and unloading if

- only part of the structure undergoes plastic deformation
- different parts of the structure undergo different plastic deformations

• Residual stresses also result from the uneven heating or cooling of structures or structural
elements

66