REFERENCE:

STRAIN

PREPARED BY: DR ROSLIDA BT ABD SAMAT

Normal Strain definition:

𝛥𝑠′ − 𝛥𝑠
𝜀𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
𝛥𝑠

where:
𝜀𝑎𝑣𝑔 is normal strain
𝛥𝑠′ is length after deformation occurs
𝛥𝑠 is length before deformation.
Shear Strain definition:
EXAMPLE 2.1 (HIBBLER – PG. 71)
 𝛥𝑠′ − 𝛥𝑠
SOLUTION 𝜀𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
𝛥𝑠
The normal strain is reported at each point along the rod, where a
differential segment dz, located at position z, has a strain of
𝑑𝑧′ − 𝑑𝑧
𝜀𝑧 =
𝑑𝑧
⟹ 𝑑𝑧 ′ = 𝜀𝑧 𝑑𝑧 + 𝑑𝑧 = 𝜀𝑧 + 1 𝑑𝑧
⟹ 𝑑𝑧 ′ = 40 10−3 𝑧 1Τ2 + 1 𝑑𝑧

Given, the slender rod shown in Fig. 2–4 is subjected to an increase of

temperature along its axis, which creates a normal strain in the rod of
where z is measured in meters
⟹ 𝑑𝑧 ′ = 40 10−3 𝑧 1Τ2 + 1 𝑑𝑧
Determine (b) the average normal strain in the rod

The average normal strain in the rod is

EXAMPLE 2.2 (HIBBLER)
Solution:
As q is very small,

𝐵𝐵′
𝜃 ≈ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 =
𝐵𝐴

⇒ 𝐵𝐵′ = 𝜃 𝐵′𝐴

BB’ = (0.002 rad)(0.5m) = 0.001 m

Therefore, the average normal strain in

the wire is:

𝛥𝑠′ − 𝛥𝑠
𝜀𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
𝛥𝑠
EXAMPLE 2.3 (HIBBLER)
Determine (b) the average shear strain in the plate at A relative to the x and y axes.

Animation
Original angle is BAC.
1. original shape of the plate fly
in. Angle after deformation is B’AC or q’.
2. The original shape fly out
EXAMPLE 2.4 (HIBBLER)
The plate shown in Fig. 2–7a is fixed connected
along AB and held in the horizontal guides at its
top and bottom, AD and BC. If its right side CD
is given a uniform horizontal displacement of 2
mm, determine (a) the average normal strain
along the diagonal AC, and (b) the shear strain
at E relative to the x, y axes.
 Question:
SOLUTION:
Determine (a) the
average normal strain
along the diagonal AC
AC is the original length.
AC’ is the length after deformation.
SOLUTION: Question:
Determine (b) the shear
strain at E relative to the
x, y axes.

𝜋
𝛾𝑛𝑡 = − 𝜃′
2
 Mechanical Properties of Materials
Tension test is used primarily to determine the relationship between the average
normal stress and average normal strain in many engineering materials such as
metals, ceramics polymers and composites.

To perform a tension or compression test a specimen of the material is made into a

“standard” shape and size. It has a constant circular cross section with enlarged ends, so
that failure will not occur at the grips. Before testing, two small punch marks are placed
along the specimen’s uniform length.

Measurements are taken of both the specimen’s initial cross-sectional area, and the
gauge-length distance between the punch marks.
A testing machine like the one shown
in Fig. 3–2 is then used to stretch the
specimen at a very slow, constant
rate until it fails.

At frequent intervals during the test,

data is recorded of the applied load P
and the elongation between the
punch marks.
 Initial length = L0 = 50 mm , A0 =125 mm2

𝛿 𝑃
P (N) L (mm) d (mm)= L-L0 Strain : 𝜀 = 𝐿 Stress, 𝜎 = 𝐴
0 0

0 50
10 52
15 54
20 56
25 57
30 59
 𝛿 𝑃
Strain : 𝜀 = Stress, 𝜎 =
𝐿0 𝐴0

Elastic region – specimen will get back to its

original shape when load is removed.
Proportional limit – the upper limit where
the stress is proportional to the strain.
Yield limit: If stress is more than yield limit,
the material will deform permenantly.
Yielding – material elongate even no
increment of load.
Strain Hardening – material hardens due to
change of position of atom. Stress is
increased to increase strain.
Utltimate Stress – maximum stress
Necking – beyond ultimate stress, the cross
sectional area decreases at localized region.
Some materials
has upper yield
point and lower
yield point, as
shown in this
Figure.
Ductile Materials. Any material that can be subjected to large strains before it fractures is called a
ductile material. Mild steel, is a typical example. Engineers often choose ductile materials for
design because these materials are capable of absorbing shock or energy, and if they become
overloaded, they will usually exhibit large deformation before failing.
One way to specify the ductility of a material is to report its percent elongation or percent
reduction in area at the time of fracture.
where
𝐿𝑓 − 𝐿𝑜
Percentage elongation = 100% 𝐿𝑜 = the specimen’s original gauge length
𝐿𝑜 𝐿𝑓 = the specimen’s length at fracture

where
𝐴𝑜 − 𝐴𝑓 𝐴𝑜 = the specimen’s original cross-
Percentage reduction in area = 100%
𝐴𝑜 sectional area
𝐴𝑓 = the area of the neck at fracture
For mild steel, the usual percentage of elongation and percentage
reduction in area are 38% and 60%, repectively.

Brass, molybdenum, and zinc may also exhibit ductile stress–strain

characteristics similar to steel, whereby they undergo elastic stress–
strain behavior, yielding at constant stress, strain hardening, and finally
necking until fracture.
 Yield point
In most metals, however,
constant yielding will not occur
beyond the elastic range. For
example, aluminum. Actually, This line is parallel to
this metal often does not have a initial straight line
well-defined yield point, and portion of stress-
consequently it is standard strain diagram
practice to define a yield
strength using a graphical
procedure called the offset
method. Normally a 0.2% strain
(0.002 mm/mm ) is chosen
The stress–strain diagrams for
most engineering materials
exhibit a linear relationship
between stress and strain within
the elastic region.

Hooke’s Law
𝜎 = 𝐸𝜖

E = modulus of elasticity or
Young’s modulus
If material is loaded beyond yield
point, it will spring back elastically
following path A’O’. Line A’O’ is
parallel to line AO.
 𝜎
Modulus of Resilience. When the 𝜎 = 𝐸𝜖 ⇒𝜖=
𝐸
stress reaches the proportional limit,
the strain-energy density, is referred to
as the modulus of resilience, which is

Modulus of resilience, ur is equivalent to

the shaded triangular area under the
diagram.
Physically a material’s resilience
represents the ability of the material to
absorb energy without any permanent
damage to the material.
Modulus of Toughness. Modulus
of toughness, represents the entire
area under the stress–strain diagram
which indicates the strain-energy
density of the material just before it
fractures.

This property becomes important

when designing members that may
be accidentally overloaded. 3
Alloying metals can also change
their resilience and toughness.
For example, by changing the
percentage of carbon in steel, the
resulting stress–strain diagrams in
Fig. 3–17 show how the degrees
of resilience and toughness can
be changed.

Fig. 3–17
Example 3.1
A tension test for a steel
alloy results in the stress–
strain diagram shown in
Fig. 3–18. Calculate the
modulus of elasticity and
the yield strength based
on a 0.2% offset. Identify
on the graph the ultimate
stress and the fracture
stress.
Solution:
Question: Calculate the
modulus of elasticity and the
yield strength based on a 0.2%
offset. Identify on the graph
the ultimate stress and the
fracture stress.
Example 3.2

The stress–strain diagram for an

aluminum alloy that is used for
making aircraft parts is shown in
Fig. 3–19. If a specimen of this
material is stressed to 600 MPa,
determine the permanent strain
that remains in the specimen
when the load is released. Also,
find the modulus of resilience
both before and after the load
application.
The slope of line OA is the modulus of elasticity, QUESTION: If a specimen of this material
is stressed to 600 MPa, determine the
permanent strain that remains in the
specimen when the load is released.

From triangle CBD, we require

This strain represents the amount of recovered

elastic strain. The permanent strain, 𝜖𝑂𝐶 is thus

Note: If gauge marks on the specimen were

originally 50 mm apart, then after the load is
released these marks will be 50 mm + (0.0150)(50
mm) = 50.75 mm apart.
 QUESTION: Find the modulus of resilience
Modulus of Resilience both before and after the load application.
released.

NOTE: By comparison, the effect of strain-

hardening the material has caused an increase
in the modulus of resilience; however, note that
the modulus of toughness for the material has
decreased since the area under the original
curve,OABF, is larger than the area under
curve CBF.

*Work in the SI system of units is measured in joules, where 1 J = 1 N m.

Example 3.3

An aluminum rod shown in Fig.

3–20a has a circular cross
section and is subjected to an
axial load of 10 kN. If a portion
of the stress–strain diagram is
shown in Fig. 3–20b, determine
the approximate elongation of
the rod when the load is
applied.Take Eal = 70 GPa.

Fig. 3–20
The normal stress within each segment is

From the stress–strain diagram, the

material in segment AB is strained
elastically since 𝜎𝐴𝐵 < 𝜎𝑌 = 40MPa.

Using Hooke’s law

Fig. 3–20
The material within segment BC is
strained plastically, since 𝜎𝐵𝐶 >
𝜎𝑌 = 40MPa. From the graph, for
𝜎𝐵𝐶 = 56.59MPa,
𝜖𝐵𝐶 ≈ 0.045mmΤmm

The approximate elongation of the

rod is therefore

Fig. 3–20