Deformations, Normal and Shear Strains,

Material Properties, Working Stresses,

Deformation in a System of Axially Loaded
Members and Temperature Effects on
axially Loaded Bar
Deformation
• Whenever a force is applied to a body, it will
tend to change the body’s shape and size. These
changes are referred to as deformation , and
they may be either highly visible or practically
unnoticeable.
′
𝛿 = ∆𝑠 − ∆𝑠
𝛿 = deformation
∆𝑠 = 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
∆𝑠 ′ = 𝑛𝑒𝑤 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒

20XX PRESENTATION TITLE 2

Strain
•The fractional change in a dimension of a material produced by a force is called the
strain. For a tensile or compressive force, strain is the ratio of the change of length to
the original length. The symbol used for strain is 𝜖 (Greek epsilon)
δ ∆𝑠 ′ − ∆𝑠
ϵ= =
L ∆𝑠
•Strain is dimension-less and is often expressed as a percentage, i.e.
δ
•percentage strain = × 100%
L
• Normal strain is a measure per unit length of the elongation or contraction of a
small line segment in the body, whereas shear strain is a measure of the change in
angle that occurs between two small line segments that are originally perpendicular
to one another.

∆𝑠 = 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
∆𝑠 ′ = 𝑛𝑒𝑤 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒

20XX PRESENTATION TITLE 3

An air-filled rubber ball has a diameter of 6 in. If
the air pressure within it is increased until the ball’s
diameter becomes 7 in., determine the average normal
strain in the rubber.

20XX PRESENTATION TITLE 4

The rigid beam is supported by a pin at A and wires
BD and CE . If the load P on the beam causes the end C to
be displaced 10 mm downward, determine the normal strain
developed in wires CE and BD .

20XX PRESENTATION TITLE

Proportional Limit and Hooke’s
Law STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM
• As seen in the figure, the stress-strain diagram is a
straight line from the origin O to a point called the
proportional limit. This plot is a manifestation of Hooke’s
law: Stress is directly proportional to strain; that is,

• σ = Eε
• where E is a material property known as the modulus
of elasticity or Young’s modulus. The units of E are the same
as the units of stress—that is, Pa or psi.
•For steel, E = 29 × 106 psi or 200 GPa, approximately. Note
that Hooke’s law does not apply to the entire diagram; its
validity ends at the proportional limit. Beyond this point,
stress is no longer proportional to strain.

20XX PRESENTATION TITLE 6

A bar having a length of 5 in. and cross-sectional
area of 0.7 in.2 is subjected to an axial force of 8000 lb. If the
bar stretches 0.002 in., determine the modulus of elasticity
of the material. The material has linear-elastic behavior.

20XX PRESENTATION TITLE 7

The rigid pipe is supported by a pin at A and an A-36
steel guy wire BD. If the wire has a diameter of 0.25 in.,
determine how much it stretches when a load of P = 600 lb
acts on the pipe.

20XX PRESENTATION TITLE 8

 Elastic Limit
• A material is said to be elastic if, after being loaded, the material returns
to its original shape when the load is removed. The elastic limit is, as its
name implies, the stress beyond which the material is no longer elastic.
The permanent deformation that remains after the removal of the load is
called the permanent set.

YIELD POINT
The point where the stress-strain diagram becomes almost horizontal is
called the yield point, and the corresponding stress is known as the yield
stress or yield strength. Beyond the yield point there is an appreciable
elongation, or yielding, of the material without a corresponding increase in
load.
For materials that do not have a well-defined yield point, yield stress is
determined by the offset method.
20XX PRESENTATION TITLE 9
 Ultimate Stress
• The ultimate stress or ultimate strength, as it is often called, is the
highest stress on the stress-strain curve.

RUPTURE STRESS
The rupture stress or rupture strength is the stress at which failure
occurs.

WORKING STRESS
The working stress 𝜎𝑤 , also called the allowable stress, is the maximum safe axial
stress used in design. In most designs, the working stress should be limited to values not
exceeding the proportional limit so that the stresses remain in the elastic range (the straight-
line portion of the stress-strain diagram). However, because the proportional limit is difficult
to determine accurately, it is customary to base the working stress on either the yield stress
𝜎𝑦𝑝 or the ultimate stress 𝜎𝑢𝑙𝑡 , divided by a suitable number N, called the factor of safety.
Thus,
σyp σult
σw = or σ𝑤 =
N N
Shearing Strain
Shear stress causes the deformation shown in the figure
below. The lengths of the sides of the element do not change, but the
element undergoes a distortion from a rectangle to a parallelogram.
The shear strain, which measures the amount of distortion, is the
angle 𝛾 (lowercase Greek gamma), always expressed in radians. It
can be shown that the relationship between shear stress 𝜏 and shear
strain 𝛾 is linear within the elastic range; that is, which is Hooke’s
law for shear. The material constant G is called the shear modulus of
elasticity (or simply shear modulus), or the modulus of rigidity.
𝜏 = 𝐺𝛾
G is also related to the modulus of elasticity E and Poisson’s ratio by
𝐸
𝐺=
2 1+𝜈
 Poisson’s Ratio 𝜖𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 =
δ
L
𝜖𝑙𝑎𝑡 =
δ′
r
• When a bar is subjected to a simple tensile loading there is an increase in length of
the bar in the direction of the load, but a decrease in the lateral dimensions
perpendicular to the load. The ratio of the strain in the lateral direction to that in the
axial direction is defined as Poisson’s ratio. It is denoted by the Greek letter 𝜈
(lowercase Greek nu).

ϵlat
• ν= −
ϵlong

• The minus sign indicates that a positive strain (elongation) in the axial
direction causes a negative strain (contraction) in the transverse directions. The
transverse strain is uniform throughout the cross section and is the same in any
direction in the plane of the cross section. Therefore, we have for uniaxial loading.
• ϵy = ϵz = −νϵx
• Poisson’s ratio is a dimensionless quantity that ranges between 0.25 and 0.33
for metals. The generalized Hooke’s law for uniaxial loading 𝜎𝑦 = 𝜎𝑧 = 0
σx σx
• ϵx = ϵy = ϵz = −ν
E E
The friction pad A is used to support the member,
which is subjected to an axial force of P = 2 kN. The pad
is made from a material having a modulus of elasticity of
E = 4 MPa and Poisson’s ratio 𝜈 = 0.4. If slipping does not
occur, determine the normal and shear strains in the pad.
The width is 50 mm. Assume that the material is linearly
elastic. Also, neglect the effect of the moment acting on
the pad.

20XX PRESENTATION TITLE 13

The aluminum block has a rectangular cross section
and is subjected to an axial compressive force of 8 kip.
If the 1.5-in. side changed its length to 1.500132 in.,
determine Poisson’s ratio and the new length of the 2-in.
side. E al = 10(103) ksi.

20XX PRESENTATION TITLE 14

 Axially Loaded Bars
• Figure shows a bar of length L and constant cross-sectional area A
that is loaded by an axial tensile force P. We assume that the stress
caused by P is below the proportional limit, so that Hooke’s law is
applicable.

• σ = Eε
P δ P 𝐸δ
• since σ = and ε = then =
A L A 𝐿
• Solving for δ yields,
𝐏𝐋 𝛔𝐋
• 𝛅= =
𝐀𝐄 𝐄
The copper shaft is subjected to the axial loads shown.
Determine the displacement of end A with respect to end D if
the diameters of each segment are dAB = 0.75 in., dBC = 1 in.,
and dCD = 0.5 in. Take Ecu = 18(103) ksi.

20XX PRESENTATION TITLE 16

 If P1 = 50 kip and P2 = 150 kip, determine the vertical
displacement of end A of the high strength precast concrete
column.

20XX PRESENTATION TITLE 17

Statically Indeterminate Members
• If the equilibrium equations are sufficient to calculate all the forces (including support reactions) that act on a
body, these forces are said to be statically determinate. In statically determinate problems, the number of unknown
forces is always equal to the number of independent equilibrium equations. If the number of unknown forces exceeds
the number of independent equilibrium equations, the problem is said to be statically indeterminate.
• Procedure for Solving Statically Indeterminate Problems: in summary, the solution of a statically indeterminate
problem involves the following steps:
• Draw the required free body diagrams and derive the equations of equilibrium.
• Derive the compatibility equations. To visualize the restrictions on deformation, it is often helpful to draw a sketch
that exaggerates the magnitudes of the deformations.
• Use Hooke’s law to express the deformations (strains) in the compatibility equations in terms of forces (or stresses).
• Solve the equilibrium and compatibility equations for the unknown forces.
 The concrete column is reinforced using four steel
reinforcing rods, each having a diameter of 18 mm. Determine
the stress in the concrete and the steel if the column is subjected
to an axial load of 800 kN. Est = 200 GPa, Ec = 25 GPa.

20XX PRESENTATION TITLE 19

 The bolt has a diameter of 20 mm and passes
through a tube that has an inner diameter of 50 mm and an
outer diameter of 60 mm. If the bolt and tube are made of
A-36 steel, determine the normal stress in the tube and bolt
when a force of 40 kN is applied to the bolt. Assume the end
caps are rigid.

20XX PRESENTATION TITLE 20

Thermal Stresses
• It is well known that changes in temperature cause dimensional changes in a body: An increase in temperature
results in expansion, whereas a temperature decrease produces contraction. This deformation is isotropic (the same in
every direction) and proportional to the temperature change. It follows that the associated strain, called thermal strain,
is
• ϵT = α ΔT
• where the constant 𝛼 is a material property known as the coefficient of thermal expansion, and DT is the
temperature change.
• Typical Values for α
−6 −6
• Aluminum, α = 23×10 ൗ℃ = 13×10 ൗ℉
−6 −6
• Steel, α = 12×10 ൗ℃ = 6.5×10 ൗ℉
• If the temperature change is uniform throughout the body, the thermal strain is also uniform. Consequently, the change
in any dimension L of the body is given by
• δT = ϵT L = α ΔT L
• If thermal deformation is permitted to occur freely (by using expansion joints or roller supports, for example), no
internal forces will be induced in the body—there will be strain, but no stress. In cases where the deformation of a
body is restricted, either totally or partially, internal forces will develop that oppose the thermal expansion or
contraction. The stresses caused by these internal forces are known as thermal stresses.