POISSON’s RATIO

 AXIAL TENSILE FORCES, cause

elongation in the direction of the force
accompanied, invariably, by contraction in
the lateral direction of the member, While

 AXIAL COMPRESSION FORCES, Cause

contraction in the direction of the force
accompanied by expansion in the lateral
direction of the member.

 For example, if a rubber band is stretched,

its length will increase while both its
thickness and width should decrease.

 Likewise, a compressive force will cause

the rubber band to contract along its
length and its sides to expand.
POISSON’s RATIO
 If a bar, of original radius, r,
and original length, L,
subjected to the tensile force
P, elongates by an amount δ,
and its radius contracts by an
amount δ’, its strains in the
longitudinal/axial direction
and in the lateral/radial
direction are, respectively,
POISSON’s RATIO

 Within the elastic range, the

ratio of these strains is a
constant, since δ, and δ’are
proportional. This constant is
referred to as Poisson’s ratio,
ν (nu), and unique for all
homogeneous and isotropic
material.

 lat
v
 long
POISSON’s RATIO
 lat
v
 long
 The negative sign is included
here since longitudinal
elongation (positive strain)
causes lateral contraction
(negative strain), and vice versa.

 It will be noted that both axial

and radial strains above are
caused only by the axial or
longitudinal force P; i.e., no force
or stress acts in a lateral
direction in order to strain the
material in this direction.
POISSON’s RATIO
 lat
v
 long
 Poisson’s ratio is a
dimensionless quantity, and for
most nonporous solids it has a
value that is generally between
1/4 and 1/3.

 For an “ideal material” having no

lateral deformation when it is
stretched or compressed,
Poisson’s ratio will be 0.

 The maximum possible value for

Poisson’s ratio is 0.5.

 Therefore: 0 ≤ ν(nu) ≤ 0.5.

EXAMPLE 2
A bar made of A-36 steel has the dimensions shown in Fig.
3–22. If an axial force of P = 80kN is applied to the bar,
determine the change in its length and the change in the
dimensions of its cross section after applying the load. The
material behaves elastically.

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EXAMPLE 2 (cont)   E
Solutions
• The normal stress in the bar is

P
z  
80 103  
 16.0 106 Pa  
A 0.10.05

• From the table for A-36 steel, Est = 200 GPa

 z 16.0106 
z  
Est 20010 
6
 80 
10 6
 mm/mm

• The axial elongation of the bar is therefore

 
 z   z Lz  8010 6 1.5  120 m (Ans)

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  lat
EXAMPLE 2 (cont) v
 long
Solutions
• The contraction strains in both the x and y directions are

 
 x   y  vst z  0.32 8010 6   25.6 m/m

• The changes in the dimensions of the cross section are

𝛿𝑥=𝜀𝑥 𝐿𝑥=− [ 25.6 ( 10 ) ( 0.1 ) ]=−2.56𝜇m   (Ans)

−6

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SHEAR STRESS-SHEAR STRAIN DIAGRAM
 A small material subjected to shear
stress is illustrated in Fig (a).

 Corresponding Shear strain is

illustrated in Fig (b).

 From the above a shear stress–shear

strain diagram can be drawn as
shown in Fig. 3.24

 As in the stress–strain diagram, there

is elastic region in the shear stress–
strain diagram and the Hooke’s law is
applied in this region:
  G
SHEAR STRESS-SHEAR STRAIN DIAGRAM

 Where the strength parameter, G

is referred to as the SHEAR
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY or
the MODULUS OF RIGIDITY

 G is related to the modulus of

elasticity E and Poisson’s ratio v
as below.
E
G
21  v 

Thus, if E and G are known, v can

then be determined from this
equation rather than through
experimental measurement
 EXAMPLE 3
A specimen of titanium alloy is tested in
torsion and the shear stress– strain
diagram is shown in Fig. 3–25a.
Determine
 the proportional limit, and
 the ultimate shear stress.
 the maximum distance d that the top
of a block of this material, shown in
Fig. 3–25b, could be displaced
horizontally if the material behaves
elastically when acted upon by a
shear force V.
 What is the magnitude of V
necessary to cause this
displacement?
 EXAMPLE 3 (cont)
Solutions
 By inspection, the graph ceases to be
linear at point A. Thus, the proportional
limit is  pl  360 MPa (Ans)

 This value represents the maximum

shear stress, point B. Thus, the ultimate
stress is   504 MPa (Ans)
u

 Since the angle is small, the top of

the block will be displaced horizontally
by
d
tan 0.008 rad   0.008   d  0.4 mm
50 mm
 The shear force V needed to cause the
displacement is
V V
 avg  ; 360 MPa   V  2700 kN (Ans)
A 75100
 EXAMPLE 4
An aluminum specimen shown in Fig. 3–26 has a diameter of d0
= 25 mm and a gauge length of L0 = 250 mm. If a force of 165 kN
elongates the gauge length 1.20 mm.
Determine
 determine the modulus of elasticity.
 by how much the force causes the diameter of the specimen
to contract. Take Gal = 26 GPa and σY = 440 MPa.
 SOLUTION
 Modulus of Elasticity. The average normal stress in the
specimen is

 and the average normal strain is

 Since σ ≤ σY = 440 MPa, thus the modulus of elasticity is:

 EXAMPLE 4 (cont)
Determine
 by how much the force causes the diameter of the specimen
to contract. Take Gal = 26 GPa and σY = 440 MPa.
 SOLUTION
Contraction of Diameter. First, Poisson’s ratio for the material
using:

 2nd, Since εlong = 0.00480mm/mm, then,

 The contraction of the

diameter is therefore
 CONCEPT QUIZ
The head H is connected to the cylinder of a
compressor using six steel bolts. If the
clamping force in each bolt is 4000N,
determine the normal strain in the bolts. Each
bolt has a diameter of 5 mm. If σy= 280 MPa
and Est = 210GPa, what is the strain in each
bolt when the nut is unscrewed so that the
clamping force is released?
a) 0.970

b) 0.203

c) 0.970(10-3)

d) Insufficient information to determine

because the stress is beyond yield point
FAILURE OF MATERIALS DUE TO CREEP AND
FATIGUE
 Our discussion so far on mechanical properties of a material
has been on members subjected to static or slowly applied
loads at constant temperature.

 Cases, however, exist where members may have to be used in

environment for which loadings must be sustained over long
periods of time at elevated temperatures, or in other cases, the
loading may be repeated or cycled.

 We will not consider these effects in this lecture; but you are
asked to read pages 129 to 130 of the prescribed book and
prepare to take a Quiz next Tuesday (07 March 2023) on the
subject matter alongside other material discussed in this
lecture.
Chapter Objectives (Section 4.2 ~ 4.5)
 Determine the elastic deformation of axially loaded
members
 Apply the principle of superposition for the determination of
the total effect of different loadings along a member
 Apply compatibility conditions
 Apply the ‘force method’ of analysis.
READING QUIZ

1) The stress distributions at different cross

sections are different. However, at locations
far enough away from the support and the
applied load, the stress distribution becomes
uniform. This is due to

a) Principle of superposition

b) Inelastic property

c) Poisson’s effect

d) Saint Venant’s Principle

SAINT-VENANT’S PRINCIPLE
if the bar in Fig.(a), fixed at one end, is
subjected to a force P along its centroidal
axis, it deforms with pronounced localized
deformation occurring at each end, compared
to the midsection.

If the material is elastic then the strains due to

the deformation are directly related to the
stress in the bar. Hence, the stress will be
distributed more uniformly farther from the
ends.

The minimum distance from the bar’s end,

where c-c occurs, is determined from the
theory of elasticity. However, it has been
found that this distance is equal to the largest
dimension of the loaded cross section

This effect is referred to as St Venant’s Principle which states that the stress and strain
produced at points in a body sufficiently removed from the region of load application will
be the same as the stress and strain produced by any applied load that has the same
statically equivalent resultant, and is applied to the body within the same region .
 ELASTIC DEFORMATION OF AN AXIALLY LOADED MEMBER
Given a bar with:
• a x-sectional area that
varies along its length, L,
and
• concentrated loads at its
ends, and a variable
external load distributed
along its length,

By how much does the RH

end of bar deform with respect
to the LH side? Hence the Stress and Strain in the element are given by:
• This is solved by the P x  dδ
Method of Sections, by  and ε 
Ax  dx
isolating an infinitesimal bar
Assuming the proportional limit is not P x   d 
of length, dx, and x-  E 
sectional area A(x) whose exceeded, we can relate them using Ax   dx 
Hooke’s Law, i.e. σ = E ε, as follows:
FBD is shown in Figure (b) Px dx
whereby the internal d 
resultant force becomes a Ax E
function of x, written as P(x) Px dx
L

or N(x), and deforms the  

element as in Figure (b) 0
Ax E
 CONSTANT LOAD AND CONSTANT X-SECTIONAL AREA
Given another bar with:
• a constant x-sectional area of length, L, and
• a constant load, P, at its ends, and a variable external load distributed along its
length,

This general reduces to:

equation reduces:

Given yet another bar where:

• subjected to several different, but constant, axial forces
along its length, L,
• or the x-sectional changes abruptly
• from one region of the bar to the next, the equation above is
applied to each segment where the above quantities remain
constant and the resultant displacement of the RH side to
the LH side found from the algebraic addition of the relative
displacements of the ends of each segment, thus:
 SIGN CONVENTION

Sign Forces Displacement

Positive (+) Tension Elongation
Negative (−) Compression Contraction

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EXAMPLE 1: SEVERAL DIFFERENT AXIAL FORCES ALONG THE LENGTH

Given this bar

Find the internal axial load, N(x), at each segment (i.e., LCD, LBC, &
LAB using the Method of Sections

NAB

You might be asked to plot the

Normal-Force Diagram below Given the geometry and material
property of the bar:
 EXAMPLE 3: CONSTANT LOAD AND CONSTANT X-SECTIONAL AREAS-
COMPOSITE BAR
An aluminum tube AB has a cross-sectional area of
400 mm2. A steel rod having a diameter of 10 mm
is attached to a rigid collar and passes through the
tube. If a tensile load of 80 kN is applied to the rod,
determine the displacement of the end C of the
rod. Take Est = 200 GPa, Eal = 70 GPa.

• Find the displacement of end C with respect

to end B.

C / B 
PL

  
 80 103 0.6 
 0.003056 m 
  
AE  0.005 200 109

• Displacement of end B with respect to the

fixed end A,

B 
PL


 80103  0.4  
 0.001143  0.001143 m 

AE 40010  7010 
6
9

• Since both displacements are to the right,

 C   C   C / B  0.0042 m  4.20 mm 
 EXAMPLE 4: VARYING INTERNAL FORCES ALONG THE LENGTH
A member is made from a material that has a specific weight and
modulus of elasticity E. If it is in the form of a cone having the
dimensions shown in Fig. 4–9a, determine how far its end is displaced
due to gravity when it is suspended in the vertical position.
Radius x of the cone as a function of y is determined by proportion,
x ro ro
 ; x y
y L L
The volume of a cone having a base of radius x and height y is
 2 ro2 3
V  yx  2 y
3 3L
Since W  V the internal force at the section
becomes ro2 3
   Fy  0; P y   2 y
3L
The area of the cross section is also a function of position y,
ro2 2
A y   x  2 y
2

Between the limits

of y =0 and L yields
,
 EXAMPLE 4: VARYING INTERNAL FORCES ALONG THE LENGTH
determine how far its end is
displaced due to gravity when it
is suspended in the vertical
position given.
Radius x of the cone as a function of y is determined by proportion,
x ro ro
 ; x y
y L L
The volume of a cone having a base of radius x and height y is
 2 ro2 3
V  yx  2 y
3 3L
Since W  V the internal force at the section
becomes
ro2 3
   Fy  0; P y   2
y
3L
The area of the cross section is also a function of position y,
ro2 2
A y   x  2 y
2

Between the limits of y =0 and L yields

,
 COMPATIBILITY CONDITIONS
• For the bar on the RH, whose ends are fixed, its FBD
can be constructed as illustrated, hence its equilibrium
equation becomes:

• But the equilibrium equation above is not

sufficient to determine the two unknown forces,
hence the problem is termed a statically
indeterminate problem
• To solve such problems, compatibility conditions (i.e.,
conditions for displacement) at the constraints are used, e.g., the
displacement of one end of the bar with respect to the other end
is equal to zero.

• The above equation can be written in the load-displacement equation

established at the start of this lecture as follows.

• Substituting the above into

the force equilibrium equation
gives:
EXAMPLE 3
EXAMPLE 3
a bolt made of 2014-T6 aluminum alloy and is tightened to
compress a cylindrical tube made of Am 1004-T61
magnesium alloy. The tube has an outer radius of 10 mm,
and both the inner radius of the tube and the radius of the bolt
are 5 mm. The washers at the top and bottom of the tube are
considered to be rigid and have a negligible thickness. Initially
the nut is hand-tightened slightly; then, using a wrench, the
nut is further tightened to 0.5mm.

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EXAMPLE 3 (cont.)
Solutions
• Equilibrium requires

   Fy  0; Fb  Ft  0 (1)

• When the nut is tightened on the bolt, the tube will shorten.
   t  0. 5   b

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EXAMPLE 3 (cont.)
Solutions
• Taking the 2 modulus of elasticity,

Ft 60 Fb 60
 0 . 5 
   
 10 2  52 45 103    
 52 75 103
5 Ft  125 1125   9 Fb (2)

• Solving Eqs. 1 and 2 simultaneously, we get

Fb  Ft  31556  31.56 kN

• The stresses in the bolt and tube are therefore

Fb 31556
b    401.8 N/mm 2  401.8 MPa (Ans)
Ab  5
Ft 31556 2
s    133. 9 N/mm  133.9 MPa (Ans)

2
At  10  5 2

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READING QUIZ (cont.)

2) The principle of superposition is valid

provided that

1. The loading is linearly related to the stress or displacement

2. The loading does not significantly change the original
geometry of the member
3. The Poisson’s ratio v ≤ 0.45
4. Young’s Modulus is small

a) 1, 2 and 3
b) 1, 2 and 4
c) 1 and 2 only
d) All

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PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION
• It can be used to simplify problems having complicated
loadings. This is done by dividing the loading into
components, then algebraically adding the results.

• It is applicable provided the material obeys Hooke’s Law

and the deformation is small.

• If P = P1 + P2 and d ≈ d1 ≈ d2, then the deflection at

location x is sum of two cases, δx = δx1 + δx2

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 FLEXIBILITY/FORCE METHOD OF ANALYSIS
• Compatibility equations written using
superposition,
• Consider support at B
redundant leading to
P displacing the bar
by δP

• If P causes B to be displaced
by δP
• the net effect is that no
• the reaction FB must displace displacement occurs when
the bar upward by an amount the two are superimposed
δB
• applying load-displacement
relationship it solves as
below:

• apply force
equilibrium equation
to find FA:
EXAMPLE 4
The A-36 steel rod shown in Fig. 4–17a has a diameter of 10
mm. It is fixed to the wall at A, and before it is loaded there is
a gap between the wall at B’ and the rod of 0.2 mm.
Determine the reactions at A and Neglect the size of the
collar at C. Take Est = 200GPa.

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EXAMPLE 4 (cont.)
Solutions
• Using the principle of superposition,

 
 0.0002   P   B 1
• From Eq. 4-2,

P 
PLAC

 
20103  0.4 
 0. 509310 3

AE 2

 0.005 20010  9

F L FB 1.2 
 B  B AB   76 .3944 
10 9
FB
AE 2

 0.005 20010  9

• Substituting into Eq. 1, we get
0.0002  0.509310 3  76.394410 9 FB
FB  4.05103   4.05 kN (Ans)

• From the free-body diagram,

   Fx  0
 FA  20  4.05  0
FA  16.0 kN (Ans)
CONCEPT QUIZ

1) The assembly consists of two posts made

from material 1 having modulus of elasticity
of E1 and a cross-sectional area A1 and a
material 2 having modulus of elasticity E2 and
cross-sectional area A2. If a central load P is
applied to the rigid cap, determine the force
in each post. The support is also rigid.

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CONCEPT QUIZ (cont.)

E1 A1
Let r 
E2 A2

 r 
A) P1   P C) P1  rP
 2r  1 
 1 
P2   P P2  2r  1P
 2r  1 

 1 
B) P1   P D) P1  r r  1P
 2r  1 
 r 
P2   P P2  r  1P
 2r  1 

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END OF TODAY’S LECTURE
 Attempt all the Fundamental Problems on page 132

 For your tutorials next week (06-10/03/2023), work on problems

3.25 to 3.34, pages 133 to 134 of the prescribed book.

 Prepare for Test 1 next Wednesday (08 March 2023, at 2030hrs)

on the Blackboard learning platform.