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LOADINGS AND CONCEPT OF NORMAL

STRESS

FUNDAMENTAL LOADINGS
Axial Loading:

Direct Shear Loading:

Torsion:

Bending:

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AXIAL LOADING: NORMAL STRESS

 Consider a prismatic bar (i.e., a straight structural member having
constant cross section through its length) that is loaded by axial
forces P

 If we make an imaginary cut at a section mn, we will find distributed

forces over the cross section.
F

 The intensity of these distributed forces (force per unit area) is

called the stress (denoted by 𝜎, sigma). Mathematically, the average
normal stress is given by
𝐹
𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝐴 (The units of 𝜎 is Pascals (Pa) or N/m2)
where: F : internal normal force ( here F = P)
A : cross sectional area of the bar (𝑭 ⊥ 𝑨)

NORMAL STRAIN
 If the shown forces are applied to the bar, these axial forces
produce a uniform stretching of the bar, and the bar is said to
be in tension. To investigate the strain in this bar, we consider
the bar before and after applying the force

 The normal strain is defined as the elongation per unit length

(epsilon, 𝜖)
𝛿 𝐿𝑓 − 𝐿0
𝜖= =
𝐿0 𝐿0
where: 𝐿0 : bar length before applying the load
𝐿𝑓 : bar length after applying the load

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EXAMPLES
Ex. 1: A prismatic bar with cross section (20 mm*40 mm) and
length L = 2.8 m is subjected to an axial tensile force of 70 kN. The
measured elongation of the bar is 1.2 mm. Calculate the tensile
stress and strain in the bar.

Solution:
P 70×103
σ= = = 87.5 × 106 Pa = 87.5 MPa
A 20×10−3 ∗40×10−3
δ 1.2×10−3
ϵ= = = 429 × 10−6
L0 2.8

EXAMPLES
Ex. 2: The shown bar has a constant width of 35 mm and a
thickness of 10 mm. Determine the maximum average normal stress
in the bar when it is subjected to the loading shown.

Solution: The first step is to find the internal forces in region AB,
BC, and CD using section method

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EXAMPLES
Or, we can find the internal forces in region AB, BC, and CD using
graphical method

 The largest loading is in region BC, where PBC = 30 kN. Since the
cross-sectional area of the bar is constant , the largest average normal
stress also occurs within this region of the bar.

EXAMPLES
Ex. 3: For the shown truss, calculate the normal stresses in members
AC and BD. The cross-sectional area of each member is 900mm2.

Solution: Equilibrium analysis using the FBD give the following

values for the external reactions Ay=40 kN, Hy=60 kN, and Hx=0.

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EXAMPLES
Ex. 3, cont.: From the shown FBD

EXAMPLES
Ex. 3, cont.: From the shown FBD

H.W.: 1-31, 1-34, 1-36, 1-45, 1-55, 2-3, 2-4, 2-5.

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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Tension Test:
 Material properties and strengths are very important in
mechanics. To learn about a material, we run standardized tests.
One of these tests is a tension test. In a tension test, the material
specimen is installed between two large grips in the testing
machine and then loaded in tension. During testing, the
elongation of the specimen and the applied force are measured.

 The axial stress 𝜎 in the test specimen is

calculated by dividing the applied force by
the cross sectional area. When the initial
area of the specimen is used in this
calculation, the resulting stress is called
the nominal stress (or the engineering
stress). A more exact value of the axial
stress, known as the true stress, can be
calculated by using the actual area.

Tension Test:
 If the stress (𝜎) is plotted against the strain (𝜖) for an axially
loaded specimen, the stress-strain diagram is resulted.
 Stress-strain diagram is very important in engineering since it
provides the means for obtaining data about material’s tensile
strength without regard for the material physical size or shape.

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Tension Test:
Stress-Strain Diagram:
 From this curve, we can identify
two main regions in which the
material behaves: elastic region,
and plastic region
Elastic region
 The diagram begins with a
straight line from the origin
to point 𝜎𝑝 , which means that
the stress and strain are  The slope of this straight line is
proportional (the stress 𝜎𝑝 is called the modulus of elasticity.
called proportional limit,). Thus, the relation between the
stress and strain is given by
Hooke's law: 𝜎 = 𝐸 𝜖

Tension Test:
Stress-Strain Diagram:
 The numerical value for the
modulus of elasticity (E) is very
large, so the stress-strain diagram
is almost vertical
For steel 𝐸 ≈ 200 GPa
For aluminum 𝐸 ≈ 70 GPa
For plastics 𝐸 ≈ 0.7 − 14 GPa

 Beyond the proportional limit, the strain begins to increase more

rapidly for each increment in stress. The stress-strain curve then
has a smaller and smaller slope, until the curve becomes
horizontal. At this point considerable elongation occurs with no
noticeable increase in the tensile force, this point is called the
yield point (𝜎𝑦 ).

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Tension Test:
Stress-Strain Diagram:
Plastic region
 Perfect plasticity or yielding: In this
region, the material can deform
without an increase in the applied
load (i.e., the elongation of mild-
steel in the perfectly plastic region
is typically 10 to 15 times the
elongation during the elastic
region).

 Strain hardening: during the strain hardening undergoes changes in its

atomic and crystallic structure resulting in increased resistance of the
material to further deformation. Additional elongation now requires an
increase in the tensile load. The load reaches its maximum value. The
corresponding stress is called the ultimate stress (𝜎𝑢 ).

Tension Test:
Stress-Strain Diagram:
 Up to the ultimate stress, as the
specimen elongates, its cross-sectional
area will decrease. This decrease is
fairly uniform over the specimen’s
entire gauge length; however, just after,
at the ultimate stress, the cross-sectional
area will begin to decrease in a localized
region of the specimen. As a result, a
constriction or “neck” tends to form in
this region as the specimen elongates
further. Finally, the the specimen breaks
at the fracture stress (𝜎𝑓 ).

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Stress-Strain Diagram:
Ductile Materials: are materials that can be subjected to large strains before they
rupture (ex: mild steel).
𝐿𝑓 −𝐿0
 %𝐸𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = × 100%, For mild steel the value would be 25-30%
𝐿0
𝐴0 −𝐴𝑓
%𝑅𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = × 100%, mild steel has a typical value of
𝐴0
50-60%

 Many aluminum alloys possess

considerable ductility, although they
do not have a clearly definable yield
point, elongation 1-45%. The yield
stress in this case may be determined
by the offset method (a line is drawn
on the stress-strain diagram parallel
to the initial linear part of the curve,
but offset by some amount of strain,
such as 0.002)

Stress-Strain Diagram:
Brittle Materials: are materials that exhibit little or no yielding before failure (ex:
cast iron).
 Fractures in brittle materials take place initially at an imperfection or a
microscopic crack and then spread rapidly causing complete fracture.
In general, most materials exhibit both ductile and brittle behavior. For example,
steel has brittle behavior when it contains a high carbon content, and it is ductile
when it contains low carbon content. Also, at low temperatures, materials become
harder and more brittle. Whereas, when the temperature rises they become softer
and more ductile.

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Stress-Strain Diagram:
 As a material is deformed by an external load, the load will do external
work, which in turn will be stored in the material as internal energy.
This energy is called as strain energy
 Modulus of Resilience. In particular, when the
stress s reaches the yield strength, the strain-
energy density is referred to as the modulus of
resilience (or the area under the stress-strain
diagram in the elastic region)

 Modulus of Toughness. This quantity

represents the entire area under the stress–
strain diagram, and therefore it indicates the
maximum amount of strain-energy the
material can absorb just before it fractures.

Poisson’s Ratio:
 When an axially loaded bar lengthens as a result of a tensile load, the
cross-sectional area of the bar must reduce accordingly. Conversely, if
the bar shortens as a result of a compressive load, then the cross
sectional area of the bar must increase accordingly.

 The French scientist S. D. Poisson realized that within the elastic range
the ratio of these strains is a constant. This constant is referred to as
Poisson’s ratio, 𝝂(nu),
𝜖𝑙𝑎𝑡.
or, 𝜈 = − 𝜖

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Poisson’s Ratio:

 where the lateral strain is the change in any lateral dimension divided
by that lateral dimension. For example, if the lateral dimension
chosen is the diameter (D) of a circular rod, then the lateral strain
could be calculated as

 Theoretically, 0 ≤ 𝜈 ≤ 0.5
 For most engineering materials, 0.25 ≤ 𝜈 ≤ 0.35

Poisson’s Ratio:

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Poisson’s Ratio:
Ex. 2. A bar made of A-36 steel (E =
200 GPa, and 𝑣 = 0.32). If an axial
force of P = 80 kN is applied to the bar,
determine the change in its length and
the change in the dimensions of its
cross section after applying the load.
The material behaves elastically.

Poisson’s Ratio:
Ex. 2, cont.

See Examples 3.1, 3.2,

H.W.: 3-5, 3-10, 3-13, 3-25, 3-28

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