STRAIN

MECDEF 204
Mechanics of Deformable
Bodies
Introduction

In general terms, strain is a geometric quantity that measures

the deformations of a body. There are two types of strain: normal
strain, which characterizes dimensional changes, and shear strain,
which describes distortion (change in angles). Stress and strain are
fundamental concept of mechanics of materials and their relationship
to each other defines the mechanical properties of a material.
Axial Deformation; Stress-Strain Diagram
The strength of a material is not the only criterion that must be
considered in designing structures. The stiffness of material is frequently of
equal importance. To a lesser degree, mechanical properties such as
hardness, toughness and ductility determine the selection of materials. These
properties are determined by tests and the results are compared to
established standards.

1. Normal (Axial) Strain

Consider the elongation of a prismatic bar of
length L. The elongation δ may be caused by an
applied axial force, or an expansion due to an
increase in temperature, or even a force and
temperature simultaneously.
Axial Deformation; Stress-Strain Diagram
Strain describes the geometry of deformation,
independent of what actually cause the deformation. The
normal strain ε (lower Greek letter epsilon) is defined as the
elongation per unit length. Therefore, the normal strain in the
bar in the axial direction, also known as the axial strain is


=
L

If the bar deforms uniformly, then the equation

represents the axial strain everywhere in the bar. Otherwise,
this expression should be viewed as the average axial strain.
Axial Deformation; Stress-Strain Diagram
If the deformation is not uniform, strain should be defined at a point.
From the figure, to determine the strain at point O, consider the deformation of
an imaginary line element (fiber) OA of length Δx. Denoting the elongation of OA
by Δδ, axial strain at point O is defined as
 d
 = lim =
x → 0 x dx
Axial Deformation; Stress-Strain Diagram
2. Tension Test.
In the standard tension test, the specimen shown is placed
in the grips of a testing machine. The grips are designed so that
the load P applied by the machine is axial. Two gage marks are
scribed on the specimen to define the gage length L. These
marks are located away from the ends to avoid the local effects
caused by the grips and to ensure that the stress and strain are
uniform in the material between the marks.
Axial Deformation; Stress-Strain Diagram
2. Tension Test.
The testing machine elongates the specimen at a slow,
constant rate, until the specimen ruptures. During the test,
continuous readings are taken of the applied load and the
elongation of the gage length. These data are then converted to
stress and strain. The stress is obtained from σ = P/A, where P is
the load and A is the original cross- sectional area of the
specimen. The strain is computed from ε = δ/L, where δ is the
elongation between the gage marks and L is the original gage
length. These results, which are based on the original area and
the original gage length, are referred to as nominal stress and
nominal strain.
Axial Deformation; Stress-Strain Diagram
2. Tension Test.
Plotting axial stress versus axial strain results in a
stress-strain diagram. If the test is carried out properly,
the stress-strain diagram is independent of the
dimensions of the test specimen. That is, the
characteristics of the diagram are determined solely by
the mechanical properties of the material.
Axial Deformation; Stress-Strain Diagram
Axial Deformation; Stress-Strain Diagram
2. Tension Test.
Mechanical properties that can be
determined from the diagram:
Proportional Limit and Hooke’s Law.
The stress-strain diagram is a straight line
from the origin O to a point called the
proportional limit. This is a manifestation
of Hooke’s law which states that stress is
proportional to strain; that is
 = E
where E is the material property known as the modulus of elasticity or Young’s modulus.
Axial Deformation; Stress-Strain Diagram
2. Tension Test.
Elastic Limit.
It is the stress beyond which, the material
is no longer elastic. The permanent
deformation that remains after the
removal of the load is called the
permanent set. The elastic limit is slightly
larger than the proportional limit.
However, because of the difficulty to
determine the elastic limit, it is usually
assumed to coincide with the proportional
limit.
Axial Deformation; Stress-Strain Diagram
2. Tension Test.
Yield Point.
It is the point at which the stress-strain
diagram becomes almost horizontal and
the corresponding stress is known as the
yield stress or yield strength. Beyond this
point, there is an appreciable elongation,
or yielding, of the material without a
corresponding increase in load. Indeed,
the load may actually decrease while the
yielding occurs. There are materials
though that do not yield.
Axial Deformation; Stress-Strain Diagram
2. Tension Test.
Yield Point.
For materials that do not have a well-
defined yield point, yield stress is
determined by the offset method. It
consist of drawing a line parallel to the
initial tangent of the stress-strain curve;
this line starts at the a prescribed offset
strain, usually 0.2% (ε = 0.002). The
intersection of this line with the stress-
strain curve is called the yield point at
0.2% offset.
Axial Deformation; Stress-Strain Diagram
2. Tension Test.
Ultimate Stress.
The ultimate stress or ultimate strength,
is the highest stress in the stress strain
curve.
Axial Deformation; Stress-Strain Diagram
2. Tension Test.
Rupture Stress.
It is the stress at which failure occurs. For
structural steel, the nominal rupture strength
is considerably lower than the ultimate
strength because the nominal rupture
strength is computed by dividing the load by
the original cross-sectional area. The true
rupture strength is calculated using the
reduced area of the cross-section where the
fracture occurred. The difference in the two
values results from a phenomenon called
necking.
Axial Deformation; Stress-Strain Diagram
2. Tension Test.
Rupture Stress.
The true rupture strength is larger than
the ultimate strength. However, the
ultimate strength is commonly used as the
maximum stress that the material can
carry.
Axial Deformation
3. Deformations of Members Under Axial
Loading
Consider a homogenous rod BC of length L
and uniform cross section area A subjected to a
centric axial load P. If the resulting axial stress σ =
P/A does not exceed the proportional limit, we may
apply Hooke’s Law. Thus,

 = E
which follows that
 P/ A P
= = =
E E AE
Since ε = δ/L, and δ = εL, then
PL
=
AE
Axial Deformation
3. Deformations of Members Under Axial Loading
The equation δ = PL/AE may be used only if the member is
homogenous (constant E), has a uniform cross sectional area A and is
loaded at its ends. If the rod is loaded at other points, or it consists of
several portions of various cross sections and possibly of different
materials, then divide it into component parts and satisfy individually
the required conditions for the application of the formula δ = PL/AE.
Thus,
Pi Li
 =
i Ai Ei
Axial Deformation
3. Deformations of Members Under Axial
Loading
In the case a member of variable cross
section, recall that the strain at a point is ε = dδ/dx,
or equivalently dδ = εdx and knowing that ε = P/AE,
then the deformation of an element of length dx is
P
d = dx = dx
AE

The total deformation δ of the member is obtained

by integrating the expression over the length L.


L
P
= dx
0 AE
Example Problems :
Axial Deformation
Determine the average normal strains in the two wires
in the figure if the ring at A moves to A′.
Axial Deformation
When force P is applied to the rigid lever arm ABC in
the figure, the arm rotates counterclockwise about pin A
through an angle of 0.05°. Determine the normal strain in
wire BD.
Axial Deformation
The cross section of the 10-m-long flat steel bar AB
has a constant thickness of 20 mm, but its width varies as
shown in the figure. Calculate the elongation of the bar due
to the 100-kN axial load. Use E = 200 GPa for steel.
STATICALLY INDETERMINATE PROBLEMS

If the equilibrium equations are sufficient to calculate

all the forces (including support reactions) that act on a
body, these forces are said to be statically determinate. In
statically determinate problems, the number of unknown
forces is always equal to the number of independent
equilibrium equations.
If the number of unknown forces exceeds the number
of independent equilibrium equations, the problem is said to
be statically indeterminate.
STATICALLY INDETERMINATE PROBLEMS

Static indeterminacy does not imply that the problem cannot be

solved; it simply means that the solution cannot be obtained from the
equilibrium equations alone. A statically indeterminate problem always
has geometric restrictions imposed on its deformation. The
mathematical expressions of these restrictions, known as the
compatibility equations, provide us with the additional equations needed
to solve the problem (the term compatibility refers to the geometric
compatibility between deformation and the imposed constraints).
Because the source of the compatibility equations is deformation, these
equations contain as unknowns either strains or elongations. We can,
however, use Hooke’s law to express the deformation measures in terms
of stresses or forces. The equations of equilibrium and compatibility can
then be solved for the unknown forces.
Statically Indeterminate Members

A rod of length L, cross sectional area A1, and modulus

of elasticity E1 has been placed inside a tube of the same
length L, but of cross-sectional area A2 and modulus of
elasticity E2. What is the deformation of the rod when a
force P is exerted on a rigid end plate as shown?
Statically Indeterminate Members
Before the 400-kN load is applied, the rigid platform rest on
two steel bars, each of cross-sectional area 1400 mm2, as shown in
the figure. The cross sectional area of the aluminum bar is 2800
mm2. Compute the stress in the aluminum bar after the 400-kN
load is applied. Use E = 200 GPa for steel and E = 70 GPa for
aluminum. Neglect the weight of the platform.
Statically Indeterminate Members

The concrete post in the figure is

reinforced axially with four symmetrically
placed steel bars, each of cross-sectional
area 900 mm². Compute the stress in each
material when the 1000-kN axial load is
applied. The moduli of elasticity are 200 GPa
for steel and 14 GPa for concrete.
Statically Indeterminate Members

Figure shows a rigid bar that

is supported by a pin at A and two
rods, one made of steel and the
other of bronze. Neglecting the
weight of the bar, compute the
stress in each rod caused by the
50-kN load, using the following
data: