FEB 271

Course content
• Mechanics of materials loading, static and dynamic forces, structural analysis.
• Stress and strain in tension, compression and shear. Behaviour of materials under static loading, stress-strain
diagrams, linear elasticity, tension, instability, elastic constants.
• Strain energy in tension, compression and shear.
• Analysis of design in simple tension and compression, non-uniform and thermal stress and strains.
• Thin-walled pressure vessels, volumetric strain, pressure effects.
• Elastic torsion analysis, design of shafts, strain energy in torsion.
• Bending beams: reaction by supports, shear forces and bending moments. Simple bending theory. Combined
loading applied to design.
• Deflection of beams due to pure bending, statically determinate beams, moment-area method, and strain
energy in bending, constant strength beam theory
Introduction
• In engineering we consider statics, dynamics and mechanics of materials. While
statics and dynamics deal with the study of external forces and motions,
mechanics of materials deals with the study of internal effects caused by external
loads i.e. objects that can stretch, bend or twist.
• we shall consider normal stress under axial loading. Stress is defined as the
intensity of internal force as shown below,
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
• This equation is only valid if the stress is uniformly distributed over the cross
section of the bar.
• Given a rectangular bar subjected to an axial force where the axial force is a load
that is directed along the longitudinal axis of the member.
• Axial forces that tend to elongate a member as tension forces while those that
shorten a member are compression forces.
Cont.,
Cont.,
• If we cut the bar by a transverse plane a-a we expose a free body diagram
of the bottom half into a cross-section . The stress acting on the surface
that is perpendicular to the direction of the internal force F is called the
normal stress and is denoted by σ.
• The sign convention for normal stress is positive for tensile normal stress
and negative for compressive normal stress.
• Given a solid bar of 0.5cm in diameter that carries a force of 5,000N,
determine the normal stress of the bar.
• It is evident that a straight bar will change in length when loaded axially
and it gets longer when in tension and shorter in compression. The
elongation per unit length is what we call strain and is denoted by ϵ and is
calculated as:
Cont.,
𝛿
• Є= and if the bar is in tension the strain is called tensile strain and
𝐿
otherwise is true. Strain is dimensionless as it’s a ratio of two lengths.
• Given a steel bar with a length of 2m that is loaded in tension and
elongates by 1.4mm determine the strain.
• Another stress we look at is shear stress that acts parallel to the
internal force which is calculated as below,
𝑉
•𝜏=
𝐴𝑣
• The third type of stress is the bearing stress which is defined as
compressive normal stresses that occur on the surface of contacts
between two separate interacting members.
• It is calculated as below,
• Given a steel pipe of 6.5cm outside diameter and a thickness of
0.25cm and that supports a load of 11N, determine the bearing stress
between the steel pipes and the steel plate
Mechanical Properties of Materials
• For design of anything an engineer must understand the mechanical
behavior of the materials being used. The only way to determine how
materials behave is by performing experiments in the laboratory usually by
testing small specimens, applying loads then measure the resulting
deformation.
• Deformation will be measured by studying changes in length or diameter.
• A common machine we use in the lab is the tensile test machine usually in
fitted with a gage length.
• In a static test, the load is applied slowly but in a dynamic test the load is
applied rapidly. The changes in dimensions are plotted against the force to
form stress strain diagrams.
• The axial stress is calculated by dividing the axial load by the cross-
sectional area. Whilst the axial strain is determined by dividing the
elongation by the original length. These two values assist us to design
a stress- strain diagram.
• Stress- strain diagram show the characteristics of the materials
especially the mechanical.
• Steel a common material in everyday construction is one of the
materials whose characteristics must be understood.
• A typical stress strain diagram for steel is shown,
• The straight line from the Origin O to point A shows that relationship
between stress and strain in this region is linear and proportional and
point A is called the proportional limit
• The slope of the straight line from O to A is called the proportional
limit also the modulus of elasticity.
• Point B to C is called yielding with point B is called the yield point with
a corresponding stress as yield stress. In this region the material
becomes perfectly plastic where the material deforms without an
increase in the applied load.
• With further loading, yielding occurs and the steel starts to strain
harden where the material undergoes changes in the crystalline
structure that result to increased resistance of the material to further
deformation. This occurs in the region of CD and at point D is the
ultimate stress.
• Fracture finally occurs in point E at the yield strength/ultimate
strength. Strength refers to the capacity of a structure to resist loads,
Assignment
• Define the stress strain diagram of ductile materials listing the
examples of ductile materials.
• Define the stress strain diagram of brittle materials listing the
examples of brittle materials.
• We now consider what happens to a material when the load is
removed and the material is unloaded.
• If we apply a load to a tensile specimen and the stress/strain go from
the origin O to point A on the stress strain curve, when the load is
removed the materials also follows exactly the same curve back to
the origin O. this property of material is referred to as elasticity.
• At this point the bar is longer than it was at preloading also called a
permanent set. Therefore during the unloading the bar returns
partially to its original shape hence the material is partially elastic.
• if a material undergoes through inelastic strains beyond the strain at
the elastic limit is known as plasticity
• If we load this material further reaching a point B, the unloading line
is parallel to the initial portion of the loading curve/BC. When point C
is reached the load is said to be entirely removed but a residual strain
or permanent strain which is represented by the line OC.
Creep
• We have looked at stress strain diagrams obtained from tension tests
involving static loading and unloading, we now look at a scenario of
an element that is loaded over long periods of time hence developing
what is known as creep. While creep is not necessarily visible its
change is too small to be of concern
• However creep is critical in design of structures under high
temperatures e.g. design of engines, furnaces etc.
• At the start of loading materials, they behave elastically and linearly
as shown in the first region of OA and the material is said to be
linearly elastic. Which is an important factor in design to avoid any
permanent deformations
• The linear relationship between stress and strain for a bar in simple
tension or compression is expressed by the below equation
• 𝜎 = 𝐸𝜖
• Where E is the modulus of elasticity for the material which is the
slope of the stress strain diagram in the linearly elastic region. This
equation is otherwise known as Hooke's Law or Youngs Modulus.
Poisson’s ratio
• When a bar is loaded in tension the elongation is also accompanied
by lateral contraction as shown below, a loaded and unloaded bar

• The lateral contraction is visible by stretching which is not visible in

materials like rubber. The lateral strain έ at any point in the bar is
proportional to the axial strain ε
• The ratio of the two strains is known as Poisson's ratio (v) and
dimensionless as shown below,

• A material must be homogeneous i.e. materials with the same

composition as opposed to isotropic for the above to hold.
Question
Hooke’s Law in Shear
Properties of materials in shear can be determined experimentally from
direct shear tests or from torsion tests then we plot shear stress strain
diagrams ( shear stress Vs shear strain). In the elastic region, the shear
stress and shear strain is proportional hence the Hooke’s law in shear,

Where G is the shear modulus of elasticity or the modulus of rigidity.

Allowable stresses and Allowable Loads
• Factors considered in the design of structures include but not limited
to functionality, strength, appearance, economics and environmental
effects. In this unit our principal concern is strength which is defined
as the capacity of the object to support or transmit loads.
Axially Loaded Members
• Structural components subjected oo tension or compression are
known as axially loaded members. Axially loaded babrs include, truss
members, connecting tofs in engines, spokes in bicycle wheels etc.
• We consider coil springs ( found in almost every automobile) to
determine the changes in lengths of axially loaded members..
• When a load is applied along the axis of the spring it either gets
longer or shorter depending on the direction of the load by an
amount σ, if the material of the spring is linearly elastic, the load and
elongation will be proportional.
Cont,
• Where k and f are constants of proportionality. K is referred to as the
stiffness of the spring and defined as the force required to produce a
unit elongation. F is referred to as flexibility and defined as the
elongation produced by a load of unit value.
• K and f are reciprocals of each other,

• If we consider a prismatic bar which is defined as a structural member

having a straight longitudinal axis and constant cross-section through
out its length. Combining the hooke’s law, and stress equation,
elongation is determined by this equation,
Cont,
• The equation shows that PL are directly proportional to elongation.
The product of EA is called axial rigidity. The stiffness and flexibility of
the bar s defined the same way as that of the spring as shown below,
Changes in length Under Nonuniform
Conditions
• This include bars loaded by one or more axial loads acting at
intermediate points along the axis. We determine the change in the
length of the bar by adding algebraically the elongations and
shortening of the individual segments.
• The procedure is as follows; identify the different segments,
determine the internal axial forces (N) in each segment, determine
the changes in lengths of the segments add the changes of the
different segments.
•.
Cont;
Cont’
Thermal Effects, misfits
• Rising temperature changes also introduce stresses and strains in
structures. Misfits could result to imperfection in construction.
• Changes in temp produce expansion or contraction of structural
materials resulting in thermal strains and stresses.
• Thermal strain (∈𝑡 ) is proportional to the temperature change,
denoted as; where α is the coefficient of thermal expansion.
Cont;
• If we combine the above equation with that of Hooke’s law ϵ=δ/E we
get,