Chapter One Mechaical Properies of Materials

CHAPTER ONE
Mechanical properties of material

Chapter One Mechanical properties of materials
1.1. Introduction
Tensile Strength
• this is the ability of a material to
withstand stretching loads without
breaking.
• The applied load P is trying to stretch
the rod. Therefore the rod is said to be in
tension, so the material from which the
rod is made needs to have sufficient
tensile strength to resist the pull of the
load
Compressive strength
• this the ability of a material to
withstand compressive
(squeezing) loads without being
crushed or broken.
• This component needs to be
made from material with
adequate compressive strength to
resist the load P.
Shear strength
• this is the ability of a material to withstand offset
loads, or transverse cutting (shearing actions)
• Because the loads are not exactly in line, they are said
to be off-set and, therefore, the load on the rivet is
called a shearing load.
• the rivet is said to be in shear.
• If the rivet material does not have sufficient shear
strength to resist the loads, the rivet will break (shear
off) as shown in fig.b and the loads acting on them will
move apart.
• The same effect can be caused by loads pushing on the
ends of the two metal bars joined by the rivet.
Toughness (impact resistance)
• this is the ability of a material
to withstand shatter.
• If a material shatters it is brittle
(eg. Glass).
• Rubbers and most plastic
materials do not shatter,
therefore they are tough.
Rigidity (stiffness)
• this is the measure of the ability not to deflect under an
applied load.
• For example Under a light load cast iron deflects less than
steel since cast iron is more rigid. But steel is much stronger
than cast iron. Thus a material which is rigid is not
necessarily strong.
Brittleness
• materials that fail in tension at relatively low values of strain
(deformation per unit length)are classified as brittle materials.
Elasticity
• the ability of a material to deform under load and
return to its original shape and size when the load is
removed.
• If it is made from an elastic material it will be the same
length before and after the load is applied.
• This is only true for most materials, if the load is
relatively small and within the elastic range of the
material being tested.
Plasticity
• this property is the exact opposite to elasticity. It is the
state of a material that has been loaded beyond the
elastic state.
• Under a load beyond that required to cause elastic
deformation the material deforms permanently.
• It takes a permanent set and will not return to its
original shape and size when the load is removed.
• Ductility and Malleability are particular cases of the
property of plasticity.
Ductility
• this is the term used when plastic deformation occurs as a
result of applying a tension force. It is property of a
material to sustain large strains at fracture.
Malleability
• this is the term used when plastic deformation occurs as a
result of applying a compressive load.
• A malleable material is required for processes as rolling
and rivet heading.
e.g. In forming the head of a rivet by hammering the
rivet needs to be made from a malleable material to
withstand this treatment.
Hardness
• this is defined as the ability of a material to withstand
scratching (abrasion) or indentation by another hard
body.
• It is an indication of the wear resistance of the
material.
1.2. Stress, Strain and Stress- Strain relationship
Stress
• The ratio of applied force to the resisting area
• There are different types of stresses
Normal Stress (i.e. Tensile stress & Compressive
stress)
Shear stress
Bearing stress
Strain
• The ratio of change in length to original length
Normal Stress
• The intensity of axial Force(Tensile or compressive)
to cross sectional area.
• Consider a prismatic bar that is loaded by axial forces
P at the ends, as shown in Fig 1(a) below.
• Note that a prismatic bar is a straight structural
member having constant cross-section throughout its
length
• The actual stress distribution
of the member under axial load
is shown below.
• The stress varies over the
entire length of the column.
However for long slender
column the variation is small
in a section away from end
points.
• In practice however the distribution of normal stress is
assumed to be uniform except in the immediate
vicinity of the application of the loads.
• When we assume uniform distribution of stress it must
be noted that a centroidal application is considered.
• Now let us consider the Uniform bar in tension
• Consider two side views of the bar in Fig. 1b, one
showing the bar before the loads are applied and the
other showing the elongated bar after the loads are
applied.
• The internal stresses produced in the bar by the axial
forces are exposed if we make an imaginary cut at
section m-n in Fig 1b.
• Because this section is taken perpendicular to the
longitudinal axis of the bar, it is called a cross-section.
• The part of the bar to the left of the cut can be isolated
and treated as free body diagram,
• The tensile load P acts at the left hand end of Fig 1 C.
at the other end are forces representing the action of
the removed part of the bar upon the part that remains.
• These forces are continuously distributed over the
cross-section.
• The intensity of force (that is, the force per unit area)
is called the stress and is commonly denoted by the
Greek letter 1 (Sigma).
• Assuming that the stress has a uniform distribution
over the cross-section as shown in Fig 1 C, it can be
seen that its resultant is equal to the intensity 1 times
the cross-sectional area A of the bar.
• Further more, from the equilibrium of the body shown
in Fig. 1c, it is also evident that the resultant must be
equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the
applied load P. From these
• When the bar is stretched by the forces P, the resulting
stresses are tensile stresses.
• if the forces are reversed in direction, causing the bar to
be compressed, we obtain compressive stresses.
• In as much as the stress 1 acts in a direction perpendicular
to the cut surface, it is referred to as a normal stress.
• Note that it is customary to define tensile stresses as
positive and compressive stresses as negative.
• In SI units stress has units of newtons per square meter
(N/m ), or Pascals
Normal Strain
• As shown in the Fig 1 above, an axially loaded bar
undergoes a change in length, becoming larger when
in tension and shorter when in compression.
• The change in length is denoted by the Greek letter
(delta).
• This elongation is the cumulative result of the
stretching of all elements of the material throughout
the length L of the bar.
• The deformation of different bodies subjected to a
particular load is a function of size, and therefore
comparisons are made by expressing deformation as a
non-dimensional quantity given by the change in
dimension per unit of original dimension.
• The non dimensional expression of deformation is
termed strain.
• For the prismatic bar in Fig 1 the strain ε is given by
• Compressive or tensile strains are the ratio of change
in length in the force direction to original length.
• Compressive strains are negative
• Tensile strains are positive.
Example 1
• A steel bar of rectangular cross section, 3cm by 2cm
carries an axial load of 30 kN. Estimate the tensile
stress.
Solution
• The are of a normal cross-section of the bar is
• The tensile stress is

Example 2
• A cylindrical block is 30 cm long
and has a circular cross section 10
cm in diameter. It carries a total
compressive load of 70 kN, and
under this load it contracts by 0.02
cm. Estimate the average
compressive stress over a normal
cross section and the compressive
strain.
Solution
• The area of normal cross section is
• The average compressive stress over this cross section

is
• The average compressive strain becomes

negative
Shearing stress
• Forces parallel to the area resisting the force cause
shearing stress. It differs to tensile and compressive
stresses, which are caused by forces perpendicular to
the area on which they act. Shearing stress is also
known as tangential stress.
• Unlike the normal stress the distribution of shearing
stress can not be assumed uniform and therefore the
term average shear stress is used
• The shearing stress is denoted by a Greek letter taw(
Where V is the shear force and A is the
shear area
• The shear stress can be single shear or double shear
based on the effective shear area
• For Single shear • For Double shear
Example 3
• Determine the average shear stress existing across
either of the planes a-a or b-b. The force exerted is 30
kN and the diameter of the bolt is 10 mm.
Solution
• Assuming that the force equally divided between section
a-a and b-b, consequently the force ½*(30 kN) = 15 kN
exerted on either of these planes on the cross sectional
area.
• The cross sectional area is
• Thus the average shearing stress across either of sec a-a
or b-b will be
Shear Strain
• It is the ratio of change in length in the force direction
to original length (perpendicular)
• Let us consider the material under shear force
Example 4
• The plate is deformed into the
dashed shape. If in this deformed
shape horizontal lines on the
plate remains horizontal and do
not change their length,
determine a) The average normal
strain along the side AB, and b)
the average shear strain in the
plate relative to the x and y axis.
Solution
Bearing Stress
• Bolts, Pins and rivets creates stress in the member they
connect, along the bearing surface or surface of contact.
• Let us again consider two plates connected by a bolt CD
• The bolt exert on plate A, a force P equal and opposite
to the force F exerted by the plate on the bolt.
• The bearing stress is obtained by dividing the load P
by the area of rectangular representing the projection
of bolt on the plate section.
• Since this area is equal to td we have
Example 5
• In the hangar shown, the upper portion of link ABC is 10
mm thick and the lower portions are each 6 mm thick.
Epoxy resin is used to bond the upper and lower portions
together at B. The pin at A is of 10mm diameter while a
6mm diameter pin is used at C. Determine
a) The shearing stress in pin A
b) The shearing stress in pin C
c) The largest normal stress in the link ABC
d) The average shearing stress in the bonded surface at B.
e) The bearing stress in the link at C.
Solution
• The free body diagram of the entire hangar is shown
• Since link ABC is a two force member, the reaction at
A is vertical. The reaction at D is represented by its
components in the x and y direction.
Stress strain Relationship
• The mechanical properties of materials used in
engineering are determined by tests performed on
small specimens of the material.
• To understand the relation between stress and strain a
structural steel specimen is installed between the two
large grips of a tensile- test machine and then loaded
in tension.
• The normal stress σ in the test specimen is calculated
by dividing the load P by the cross-sectional area A.
• The average axial strain in the bar is found from the

measured elongation δ between the gage marks by
dividing δ by the gage length L.
• Compression tests of metals are customarily made on
small specimens in the shape of cubes or circular
cylinders.
• Both the load applied by the machine and the
shortening of the specimen may be measured instantly.
• After performing a tension or compression test and
determining the stress and strain at various magnitudes
of the load, we can plot a diagram of stress versus strain.
• Such a stress-strain diagram is characteristic of the
material and conveys important information about the
mechanical properties and type of behavior.
• Consider a structural steel, also known as mild steel or
low - carbon steel.
• A stress - strain diagram for a typical structural steel in
tension is shown in the next slide.
• The diagram begins with a straight line from the
origin 0 to point A, which means that the stress and
strain are proportional. (linear elastic response)
• In this region Hook’s law become valid(i.e Stress
strain are proportional,)
• The slope of the straight line from 0 to A or this
constant is called the modulus of elasticity or Young's
modulus E.
• Beyond point A, the proportionality between stress and
strain no longer exists; hence the stress at A is called the
proportional limit.
• With an increase in the load beyond the proportional limit,
the strain begins to increase more rapidly for each
increment in stress. The stress-strain curve then has a
smaller and smaller slope, until, at point B, the curve
becomes horizontal.
• Beginning at this point, considerable elongation occurs, with
no noticeable increase in the tensile force (from B to C )
• This phenomenon is known as yielding of the material,
and point B is called the yield point.
• The corresponding stress is known as the yield stress of
the steel.
• In the region from B to C, the material becomes perfectly
plastic, which means that it can deform without an
increase in the applied load.
• After undergoing the large strains that occur during
yielding in the region BC, the steel begins to strain harden.
• During strain hardening, the material undergoes
changes in its atomic and crystalline structure, resulting
in increased resistance of the material to further
deformation.
• Additional elongation now requires an increase in the
tensile load, and the stress-strain diagram has a positive
slope from C to D.
• The load eventually reaches its maximum value, and
the corresponding stress (at point D) is called the
ultimate stress.
• Further stretching of the bar is actually

accompanied by a reduction in the load, and
fracture occurs at a E.
• Lateral contraction of the specimen occurs when it
is stretched, resulting in a decrease in the cross-
sectional area.
• In this stage a pronounced necking of the bar
occurs.
• The stress strain diagram for brittle materials in
compression is shown below
Lateral strain
• The ratio of Change in length in the lateral direction
to original length in the lateral direction.
∆ 𝐿 𝑙𝑎𝑡
𝜀 𝑙𝑎𝑡 =
𝐿𝑙𝑎𝑟
• Poisson’s Ratio
• When a prismatic bar is loaded in tension, the
axial elongation is accompanied by lateral
contraction (normal to the direction of the applied
load), the final shape being dotted in the Fig.
below.
• The ratio of the strain in the lateral direction to the strain
in the axial direction is known as Poisson's ratio and is
denoted by the Greek letter ν (nu); thus
• The value of ν fluctuates for different materials over a

relatively narrow range.
• Generally, it is on the order of 0.25 to 0.35. In extreme
cases, as low as 0.1 (some concretes) and as high as 0.5
(rubber) occur.
• The latter value is the largest possible.
Volumetric Strain
• Because the dimensions of a bar in tension or
compression are changed when the load is applied, the
volume of the bar changes too.
• The change in volume can be calculated from the axial
and lateral strains.
• Consider a small rectangular parallelepiped element of
isotropic material cut from a bar in tension.
• The element has side lengths a, b and c in the x, y, and z

directions, respectively. The dashed line in the fig below
shows the shape of the element after the load is applied.
• The elongation of the element in the direction of loading
is aε, where ε is the axial strain.
• Because the lateral strains are - νε the lateral dimensions
decrease by bνε and cνε in the y and z directions
respectively.
• Thus, the final dimensions of the element are a(1 + ε),
b(1 - νε), and c(1 - νε), and the final volume is
Vf = abc (1 + ε) (1 - νε) (1 - νε)
• Expanding this expression will give:-
Vf = abc [1 +ε- 2 νε - 2 νε^2 + v2ε^2 + ν^2ε^3]
• As ε is very small compared to unity, its square and cube
are negligible in comparison to ε itself. Therefore, the
final volume of the element is.
Vf = abc (1+ε - 2 νε)
• The change in volume is,
ΔV = Vf – Vo = abc (1 +ε- 2 νε) – abc = abcε (1 - 2ν)
Where the original volume, Vo = abc
• The volumetric strain is by definition the ratio of
change in volume to original volume
𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆
𝒆=
𝑶𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆
• The unit volume change, i.e. volumetric strain,
Temperature Strain
• A change in the temperature of an object tends to
produce a change in its dimensions. Due to this
change in dimensions, the material undergoes a
uniform thermal strain εt given by the expression.
• In the above expression α is the coefficient of linear
thermal expansion and ΔT is the increase or decrease
in temperature
• This implies a rod of length L with temperature change
ΔT will have a change in length of
• Generally, increasing temperature causes expansion

and thus a positive strain, while decreasing
temperature results in contraction & negative strain.
• The total strain, in a body experiencing thermal stress
may be divided in to two components, the strain
associated with the stress, εσ, and the strain resulting
from temperature change, εt. Thus,
ε = εσ + εt
• Hence
Example 6
• A steel bar 300mm long, 50mm wide and 40mm thick is
subjected to a pull of 300 kN in the direction of its length.
Determine the change in volume. Take and
Solution
Given
• Length,L=300mm, width b= 50mm, thickness t = 40mm,
pull P=300kN=300x,E= &
• Original volume, V=Lxbxt =300x50x40=600000
• The longitudinal strain is given by
• But stress in the direction of load

=
• From
• From the volumetric equation formula
We can obtain the change in volume by

Example 7
• A rod of 2m long is at a temperature of . Find the expansion
of the rod when the temperature is raised to 80. If the
expansion is prevented, find the stress induced in the
material of the rod. Take and
Solution
• Given
• Length L=2m=200cm
• Initial temperature, T1=10 and Final temp, T2=80
• and
• Raise in temperature
• The expansion of the rod is given by
• The stress in the material if expansion is prevented is

given by
True Stress and Strain and Engineering stress strain
• Engineers typically work with engineering stress,
which is the force divided by the original area of the
specimen before loading: σ = P/A0. However, as a
material is loaded, the area decreases.
• The true stress, is the value of stress in the material
considering the actual area of the specimen.
• Because the area decreases as a material is loaded, true
stress is higher than engineering stress.
• The figure below shows an engineering stress-strain curve as
compared to a true stress-strain curve.
• Because the engineering stress is calculated as force divided by
original area (which is a constant), the engineering stress-strain
curve has the same shape as the load-deflection curve.
• The engineering stress-strain curve drops after the ultimate
strength is reached because the force that can be supported by
the material drops as it begins to neck down.
• However, the stress value in the true stress-strain curve always
increases as the strain increases. This is because the
instantaneous value of area is used when calculating true stress.
• Even when the force supported by the material drops,
the reduction in the specimen area outweighs the
reduction in force, and the stress continues to increase.
Shear stress strain diagram
• The behavior of materials subjected to pure shear can
be studied in laboratory by using specimen in the shape
of thin circular tube and subjecting them to a torsional
loading.
• If the applied torsion and angle of twist is measured the
shear stress strain diagram can be drawn.
• In the elastic region hooks law become valid and the
shear stress will be proportional to the shear strain with
some constant.
• This constant is called Shear modulus of elasticity
or modulus of rigidity denoted by G.
• Modulus of rigidity can be related with modulus of

elasticity.
Example 8
• An aluminum specimen shown has a
diameter of and a gauge length of If a
force of 165 kN elongates the gauge
length by 1.2 mm , determine the modulus
of elasticity. Also determine by how much
the force causes the diameter of the
specimen to contract. Take and
Solution
• To find the Modulus of elasticity the average normal stress
and strain in the specimen should be first computed.
• The average normal strain is
• Since the material behaves elastically

• The modulus of elasticity becomes
• Contraction of diameter First let us determine the
poisonous ratio
• Since • The Contraction of the

diameter is therefore
= 0.0415mm
1.3.Stress for Uniform, Tapered rectangular and
circular sections
• Let us consider a bar of thickness t and uniformly
tapered rectangular section as shown
Let P = Axial load on the bar

L = Length of the bar
a = Width of the bigger end
b = Width of the smaller end
E = Young’s Modulus
t = thickness of the bar
• Consider any section X-X at a distance x from the bigger
end.
• Width of the bar at the section X-X
• Thickness of the bar at section X-X = t
•
• Extension of the small elemental length
• Total extension of bar is obtained by integrating the above

equation between the limits 0 and L
Example 9
• A rectangular bar made of steel is 2.8m long and 15
mm thick. The rod is subjected to an axial tensile load
of 40 kN. The width of the rod varies uniformly from
75mm at one end to 30 mm at the other. Find the
extension of the rod if
Solution
• Given
• Length, L = 2.8m = 2800mm, Thickness t = 15 mm
• Axial Load, P = 40kN = 40,000 N,a = 75 mm,
b = 30mm and
• Now let us consider the stress and elongation of
uniform tapering circular bar of diameter at one end
and at the other end.
• Now let
L= TotaL length of the bar
E = Youngs Modulus
• Consider a small element of length dx of the bar at distance x
from the left end. Let the diameter of the bar be at a distance
x from the left end.
• Then
• Area cross section of the bar at a distance x from the left end,
• Now the stress at a distance x from the left end is given by

The strain in the small element of length dx is obtained by
Extension of small elemental length dx = strain x

• The total extension of the bar is obtained by integrating the equation
above from 0 to L.
• Substitiuting the value of we get
• If the bar is of uniform diameter

4 𝑃𝐿
𝑑𝑙=
𝜋 𝐸 𝐷2
• Example 10
• Find the modulus of elasticity of a rod which tapers
uniformly from 30 mm to 15 mm in a length of 350mm.
The rod is subjected to an axial Load of 5.5 kN and
extension of the rod is 0.025mm.
Solution
• From
or
1.4 Allowable stress and factor of safety
• The maximum load that a structure is allowed to carry
is considerably smaller than the ultimate load.
• This smaller load is called allowable load or
sometimes working load or design load.
• Thus only a fraction of the ultimate load is utilized
when the allowable load is applied.
• The remaining portion of load carrying capacity is kept
in reserve to assure its safe performance.
• The ratio of ultimate load to allowable load is called
factor of safety.
• An alternative definition of factor of safety is based on

the use of stress.
• Factor of safety is required for structures as it accounts
uncertainty in load calculation, design procedure and
production method.
• Design analysis
𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠≤𝐴𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠≤𝐴𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠

Example 11
• The lattice truss shown in the next slide is subjected to a
vertical load of 100 kN at its lower chord.
a) determine the normal forces of members S1, S2 and S3
b) carry out the design analysis for diagonal member S2,
considering a solid square cross section 24 mm x 24
mm such as the given safety factor and the allowable
stress
c) design lower chord member S3 by choosing the
appropriate diameter of a solid circular cross section
Solution
1.5. Elastic constants and there derivatives for
axially loaded members
• The elastic constants that are derived for axially loaded
members includes.
a) Poisonous ratio
b) Modulus of elasticity
c) Modulus of rigidity
d) Bulk Modulus
e) Modulus of resilience
• The first three are already discussed and the remaining
two will be discussed here
Bulk Modulus
• When a body is subjected to the mutual perpendicular
and equal direct stresses, the ratio of this direct stress
to volumetric strain is found to be constant.
• This ratio is called bulk modulus K.
• Now let us see the relation between bulk modulus and
modulus of elasticity.
Modulus of resilience
• it is the ability of a material to absorb energy in the
elastic range.
• It is the work done on a unit volume of material as a
simple tensile stress is gradually increased from zero
to a proportionality limit.
• It is calculated from the area of stress strain curve from
Example 12
• A bar of 30 mm diameter is subjected to a pull of 60
kN. The measured extension of the gauge length of 200
mm is 0.1 mm and change in diameter is
0.004mm.Calculate
a) Young's Modulus
b) Poisonous ratio
c) Bulk Modulus
Solution
• Given : Diameter of bar = 30mm,
Area of bar,
• P= 60 kN, Gauge length L = 200 mm ,extension, and change in
diameter,
a) Young's modulus
• Tensile stress,
• Long strain,
b) Poisonous ratio
Lateral strain,
c) Bulk modulus
1.5. Change in length of axially loaded members
• Structural components subjected only to tension or
compression is known as axially loaded members.
• Solid bars with straight longitudinal axes are the most
common type, although cables and coil springs also
carry axial loads.
• Examples of axially loaded bars are truss members,
connecting rods in engines, spokes in bicycle wheels,
columns in buildings, and struts in aircraft engine
mounts.
• When determining the changes in lengths of axially
loaded members, it is convenient to begin with a coil
spring.
• Springs of this type are used in large numbers in many
kinds of machines and devices for instance; there are
dozens of them in every automobile.
• When a load is applied along the axis of a spring, as
shown, the spring gets longer or shorter depending upon
the direction of the load.
• If the load acts away from the spring, the spring elongates
and we say that the spring is loaded in tension.
• If the load acts toward the spring, the spring shortens
and we say it is in compression.
Springs
• Under the action of the force P, the spring lengthens by an
amount δ and its final length becomes L + δ . If the
material of the spring is linearly elastic, the load and
elongation will be proportional:
• In which k and f are constants of proportionality.

• The constant k is called the stiffness of the spring and is
defined as the force required to produce a unit elongation,
that is, k = P/ .
• Similarly, the constant f is known as the flexibility and
is defined as the elongation produced by a load of unit
value, that is, f = /P.
• From the preceding discussion it is apparent that the
stiffness and flexibility of a spring are the reciprocal of
each other:
•Prismatic Bars
• Axially loaded bars elongate under tensile loads and
shorten under compressive loads, just as springs do. To
analyze this behavior, let us consider the prismatic bar
shown in the next slide.
• A prismatic bar is a structural member having a
straight longitudinal axis and constant cross section
throughout its length.
• Although we often use circular bars in our illustrations,
we should bear in mind that structural members may
have a variety of cross-sectional shapes.
• If the load acts through the centroid of the end cross
section, the uniform normal stress at cross sections
away from the ends is given by the formula
= P/A where A is the cross-sectional area.
• Furthermore, if the bar is made of a homogeneous
material, the axial strain is
= /L where is the elongation and L is the length
of the bar.
• Let us also assume that the material is linearly elastic,
which means that it follows Hooke’s law.
• Then the longitudinal stress and strain are related by
the equation = E , where E is the modulus of
elasticity.
• Combining these basic relationships, we get the
following equation for the elongation of the bar:
• This equation shows that the elongation is directly
proportional to the load P and the length L and
inversely proportional to the modulus of elasticity E
and the cross-sectional area A.
• The product EA is known as the axial rigidity of the bar.
• The stiffness and flexibility of a prismatic bar are
defined in the same way as for a spring.
• The stiffness is the force required to produce a unit
elongation, or P/ , and the flexibility is the elongation
due to a unit load, or /P.
• The stiffness and flexibility of a prismatic bar are,
respectively,
Example
Solution
• The FBD of the body ABC
1.6. Changes in Length Under Non uniform Conditions
• consider a prismatic bar is
loaded by one or more axial
loads, use the free body
diagrams, the axial forces in
each segment can be calculated
• the changes in length of each segment are
• And the change in length of the entire bar is
• the same method can be used when the bar consists of

several prismatic segments, each having different
axial forces, different dimensions, and different
materials, the change in length may be obtained
• when either the axial force N or

the cross-sectional area A vary
continuously along the bar, the
above equation no longer
suitable
• consider a bar with varying cross-sectional area and
varying axial force
Example
• The composite A-36 steel bar
shown is made from two segments
AB and BD having a cross
sectional area of and .Determine
the vertical displacement of B
relative to C.
Solution
• Internal force
• Due to application to the
external loadings The internal
axial forces in the regions
AB,BC and CD will all be
different.
• This forces are obtained by
applying the method of sections
and the equation of vertical
force equilibrium as shown.
• The variation of the Displacement
axial force is shown • Using sign convention the internal
below tensile forces are positive and the
compression forces are negative, the
vertical displacement of A relative to
fixed support D is
• Since the result is positive, the bar elongates and so the
displacement at A is upward therefore the
displacement of c with respect to B is
• Example
• a tapered bar AB of solid circular cross section with
length L is supported to a tensile load P, determine
Solution
• the cross-sectional area at distance x is

• then the elongation of the bar is
Thank you !!

Chapter One Mechaical Properies of Materials

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Chapter One Mechaical Properies of Materials

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CHAPTER ONE

Mechanical properties of material

• The are of a normal cross-section of the bar is

• The tensile stress is

• The average compressive stress over this cross section

• The average compressive strain becomes

• The average axial strain in the bar is found from the

• Further stretching of the bar is actually

• The value of ν fluctuates for different materials over a

• The element has side lengths a, b and c in the x, y, and z

• Generally, increasing temperature causes expansion

• But stress in the direction of load

We can obtain the change in volume by

• The expansion of the rod is given by

• The stress in the material if expansion is prevented is

• Modulus of rigidity can be related with modulus of

• The average normal strain is

• Since the material behaves elastically

• Since • The Contraction of the

Let P = Axial load on the bar

• Thickness of the bar at section X-X = t

• Total extension of bar is obtained by integrating the above

• Now the stress at a distance x from the left end is given by

The strain in the small element of length dx is obtained by

Extension of small elemental length dx = strain x

• If the bar is of uniform diameter

• An alternative definition of factor of safety is based on

𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠≤𝐴𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠

𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠≤𝐴𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠

• In which k and f are constants of proportionality.

• And the change in length of the entire bar is

• the same method can be used when the bar consists of

• when either the axial force N or

• the cross-sectional area at distance x is

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