SOLID MECHANICS

Chapter 1
Simple Stresses and Strains
 Introduction to Solid Mechanics
• The course Solid Mechanics/Strength of
materials/Mechanics of Materials involves
analytical methods to determine:

– S____________
– S____________
– S____________
 Introduction to Solid Mechanics
• The course Solid Mechanics/Strength of
materials/Mechanics of Materials involves
analytical methods to determine:

– Strength
– Stiffness
– Stability
 Introduction to Solid Mechanics
• The course Solid Mechanics/Strength of
materials/Mechanics of Materials involves
analytical methods to determine:

– Strength [Resistance of a material without breaking]

– Stiffness [Resistance to deformation]
– Stability [ Equilibrium conditions]
• What do you mean by Strength of material?

– Strength depends on various factors:

• What do you mean by Strength of material?
– Maximum resistance a material can offer to
externally applied loads.

– Strength depends on various factors:

• Type of loading
• Temperature
• Internal structure etc.
 Strength of a material
• When an external force is acting on a body , the
body tends to undergo some deformation.

• Due to this external force the molecules which

are in cohesion with each other tries to offer
resistance to this external force.

• This resistance offered by the internal molecules

is called as strength of material. However , on the
removal of external force this resistance bring
back the body to original position.
With in the limit, the resistance is equal to the
external force, But beyond the limit, the
resistance offered by the material is less than
applied load.
Resistance < Applied Load -----> Deformation
• What is Stress?
• Stress
• Units of Stress:

 As Pascal is a small quantity, in practice, multiples of

this unit is used.
 1Pa = 1N/m2
 Parallel to cross-
Perpendicular to sectional area
cross-sectional
area
Tensile Stress (σt) The fibers of the component tend to elongate
due to the external force. A member subjected to an external
force tensile P and tensile stress distribution due to the force is
shown in the given figure.
P P

P
Resisting Force (R)

P
Resisting Force (R)

P P
Compressive Stress (σc) The fibers of the component tend to
shorten due to the external force. A member subjected to an
external compressive force P and compressive stress distribution
due to the force is shown in the given figure.

Resisting Force (R)

Resisting Force (R)

= P/A
 • NPTEL MOOC
• Strength of Materials by Prof.

Course Type : Core

Duration : 12 weeks
Start Date : 25 Jul 2022
End Date : 14 Oct 2022
Exam Date : 30 Oct 2022 IST
Enrollment Ends : 08 Aug 2022

https://onlinecourses.nptel.ac.in/noc22_ce75/preview
• Shear Stress is stress is induced in the body if the
force or load acts in a direction parallel to the cross-
section area. It is denoted by letter ‘τ’. Shear stress
always tries to change the shape of the body.

• Force P is applied transversely to the member AB as

shown. The corresponding internal forces act in the
plane of section C and are called shearing forces.
• Shear Stress = P/A
Here A is Shear Area (Area of bolt)
• Shear Stress = P/A
Here A is Shear Area (Area of bolt)
• Shear Stress = P/2A
Here A is Shear Area
(Area of bolt)
• Find the minimum diameter of a steel wire,
which is used to raise a load of 4000N if the
stress in the rod does not exceed 95 MN/m2

A) 6.5mm
B) 7.3mm
C) 8.7mm
D) 9.3mm
• Find the minimum diameter of a steel wire, which is
used to raise a load of 4000N if the stress in the rod
does not exceed 95 MN/m2
A) 6.5mm
B) 7.3mm
C) 8.7mm
D) 9.3mm
• Normal stress is defined as:

A) Internal resistive force per unit surface area

B) Applied load per unit cross sectional area
C) Internal resistive load per unit cross sectional area
D) Applied load per unit surface area
• Normal stress is defined as:

A) Internal resistive force per unit surface area

B) Applied load per unit cross sectional area
C) Internal resistive load per unit cross sectional area
D) Applied load per unit surface area
• Shear stress tends to cause:

A) Elongation in the body

B) Contraction in the body
C) Twist in the body
D) All of the above
• Shear stress tends to cause:

A) Elongation in the body

B) Contraction in the body
C) Twist in the body
D) All of the above
• The units of stress equivalent to 1 MPa is:

A) N/m^2
B) N/mm^2
C) 10^6N/mm^2
D) 10^6N/m^2

i) B is correct ii) Both B & C are correct

iii) Both B & D are correct iv) A is correct
• The units of stress equivalent to 1 MPa is:

A) N/m^2
B) N/mm^2
C) 10^6N/mm^2
D) 10^6N/m^2

i) B is correct ii) Both B & C are correct

iii) Both B & D are correct iv) A is correct
• Strain
• Types of Strain:
• Hook’s Law
Within elastic limit
• What is the significance of ‘E’?
• Young’s Modulus of elasticity ‘E’ is an essence
of material’s stiffness.
• More the value of E, more force is required to
deform the material.
• Q. A mild steel bar 20mm diameter 400mm length is
subjected to an axial pull of 40kN. Calculate a) tensile
stress induced in the bar b) axial strain developed, if
the young’s modulus of steel is E = 200kN/mm2. c)
Also calculate the change in length.

A) 127MPa, 0.000636, 0.254mm

B) 127MPa, 0.000348, 0.1392mm

C) 150MPa, 0.000636, 0.1392mm

D) 150MPa, 0.000348, 0.254mm

• Q. A mild steel bar 20mm diameter 400mm length is
subjected to an axial pull of 40kN. Calculate a) tensile
stress induced in the bar b) axial strain developed, if
the young’s modulus of steel is E = 200kN/mm2. c)
Also calculate the change in length.

A) 127MPa, 0.000636, 0.254mm

B) 127MPa, 0.000348, 0.1392mm

C) 150MPa, 0.000636, 0.1392mm

D) 150MPa, 0.000348, 0.254mm

Extension produced in a rod under
tensile load
• A mild steel rod 20mm diameter is subjected
to and axial pull of 50kN. Calculate the tensile
stress induced in the rod and elongation if the
unloaded length is 5m. Take E = 210GN/m2.

A) 159N/mm2, 3.7mm
B) 259N/mm2, 4.7mm
C) 108N/mm2, 2.9mm
D) 267N/mm2, 6.8mm
• A mild steel rod 20mm diameter is subjected
to and axial pull of 50kN. Calculate the tensile
stress induced in the rod and elongation if the
unloaded length is 5m. Take E = 210GN/m2.

A) 159N/mm2, 3.7mm
B) 259N/mm2, 4.7mm
C) 108N/mm2, 2.9mm
D) 267N/mm2, 6.8mm
Practice Problem:

Q A control rod made of brass must not stretch

more than 3mm when the tension in the wire
is 4kN. Knowing that E = 105GPa, and that the
maximum allowable normal stress is 180MPa,
Calculate a) smallest diameter that can be
selected for the rod. b) corresponding
maximum length of the rod.
• Factor of Safety:
Factor of safety (FoS), also known as safety factor (SF),
expresses how much stronger a system is than it
needs to be for an intended load
• Which applications require high factor of
safety?

• How to increase Factor of safety?

• Which applications require high factor of
safety?
– Heavy machinery
– High cost involving applications
– Human life
– Unexpected environment (like space)

• How to increase Factor of safety?

– Increasing moment of inertia
– Better materials
• The Ultimate stress for a hollow steel column
which carries an axial load of 1.9MN, is
480N/mm2. If the external diameter of the
column is 200mm, determine the internal
diameter. Take factor of safety as 4.

A) 110.6mm
B) 120.4mm
C) 130.2mm
D) 140.8mm
• The Ultimate stress for a hollow steel column
which carries an axial load of 1.9MN, is
480N/mm2. If the external diameter of the
column is 200mm, determine the internal
diameter. Take factor of safety as 4.

A) 110.6mm
B) 120.4mm
C) 130.2mm
D) 140.8mm
 Practice Question

• A hollow cylinder 2 m long has an outside

diameter of 50mm and inside diameter of
30mm. If the cylinder is carrying a load of
25KN, find the stress in the cylinder. Also find
the deformation in a cylinder if the value of E
is 100 GPa.
• Practice problem 1
A steel bar of 2m long and 150 mm2 is subjected
to an axial pull of 15KN. Find the elongation of
the bar. Take E = 200 GPa.

• Practice problem 2
A brass rod 1.5m long and 20mm diameter was
found to be deform 1.9 mm under a tensile
load of 40KN. Calculate the modulus of
Elasticity.
• Practice Problem:
Q. The safe stress for a hollow steel column
which carries an axial load of 2.1x10^3kN is
125MN/m2. If the external diameter of the
column is 30cm, calculate the internal
diameter.
Bars/Rods of Varying cross-section
Bars/Rods of Varying cross-section
Practice Problem:

Q. An axial pull of 35000N is acting on a bar

consisting of three lengths as shown in figure. If
the modulus of elasticity of the material is
2.1x10^5 N/mm^2, Calculate:
– Stresses in each section
– Total extension of the bar

35000N
35000N
2cm dia. 3cm dia. 5cm dia.

20cm 25cm 22cm

• A member formed by connecting a steel bar to an aluminum
bar is shown in figure. Assuming that the bars are prevented
from buckling sideways, calculate the magnitude of force P,
that will cause the total length of the member to decrease by
0.25mm. E for steel and aluminum are 2.1x10^5 and 7x10^4
N/mm2 respectively.

A) 150kN B) 180kN C) 224kN D) 323kN

• A member formed by connecting a steel bar to an
aluminum bar is shown in figure. Assuming that the
bars are prevented from buckling sideways, calculate
the magnitude of force P, that will cause the total
length of the member to decrease by 0.25mm. E for
steel and aluminum are 2.1x10^5 and 7x10^4
N/mm2 respectively.

A) 150kN B) 180kN C) 224kN D) 323kN

• Principle of Superposition:

P1 P2 P3 P4
• Principle of Superposition:

P1 P2 P3 P4

P1+P3-P2 P4
P1 P2+P4-P3

P1-P2 P4-P3
50kN
A B C
80kN 20kN 10kN

Find total change in length of the bar. If the area is 1000mm2. Take E =
1.05x10^5 N/mm2.

A) 0.285mm
B) -0.1142mm
C) -0.57mm
D) -0.3992mm
• Practice problem
Calculate the total elongation in the following bar.
P1=45kN, P3=450kN, P4= 130kN
E= 2.1x10^5 N/mm2
a) -0.49mm b) 0.36mm
c) 0.49mm d) -0.36mm

P1
P2 P3 P4

A=625mm^2 A=1250mm^2
L=120cm A=2500mm^2 L=90cm
L=60cm
• Practice problem
Calculate the total elongation in the following bar.
P1=45kN, P3=450kN, P4= 130kN

a) -0.49mm b) 0.36mm
c) 0.49mm d) -0.36mm

P1
P2 P3 P4

A=625mm^2 A=1250mm^2
L=120cm A=2500mm^2 L=90cm
L=60cm
P1
P2 P3 P4

A=625mm^2 A=1250mm^2
L=120cm A=2500mm^2 L=90cm
L=60cm
P1 + P3 = P2 + P4
P1=45kN, P3=450kN, P4= 130kN
45 + 450 = P2 + 130

P2 = 365 kN
• Consider a bar subjected to different forces as
shown in figure:

30kN 20kN

34kN 16kN

D=20mm, l=100mm D=10mm, l=150mm

D=14mm, l=140mm

If E=100kN/mm2, calculate the stress in each

portion, change in length in each portion and
overall change in length.
• Relationship between stress and strain:

– One Dimension:
2Dimension
:
• Mechanical Properties of materials:
– Elasticity: ability of a body to resist a distorting
influence and to return to its original size and
shape when that influence or force is removed.
– Plasticity: ability of a solid material to undergo
permanent deformation, a non-reversible change
of shape in response to applied forces
– Ductility: ability of a material to withstand tensile
force when it is applied upon it as it undergoes
plastic deformation.
• In other words, it is the property of material to be
drawn into thin wires
• Mechanical Properties of materials:
– Malleability: property of metals that defines their
ability to be hammered, pressed, or rolled into
thin sheets without breaking.
• In other words, it is the property of a metal to deform
under compression and take on a new shape.
– Brittleness: opposite of ductility as it refers to the
ability of materials to break into pieces upon
application of tensile force without any elongation
or plastic deformation.
– Toughness: ability of a material to absorb energy
and plastically deform without fracturing.
– Hardness: measure of the resistance to localized
plastic deformation induced by either mechanical
indentation or abrasion. Some materials (e.g.
metals) are harder than others (e.g. plastics,
wood).
– Stiffness: extent to which an object resists
deformation in response to an applied force.
– Strength: is its ability to withstand an applied load
without failure
• Homogeneous materials:
– Same composition throughout the volume of the
material (metal alloys like aluminium, steel etc.)
• Isotropic materials:
– Same elastic properties in all the directions
• Anisotropic materials:
– Elastic properties differ in various directions (e.g
Timber)
• Orthotropic materials:
– If properties in a particular direction are same
throughout the material and in other directions are
same. (e.g. fiber reinforced composites)
• Q: A 50mm diameter steel bar 200mm long
was subjected to a tensile force. The length
was found to increase by 0.08mm and
decrease in diameter was 0.006mm. Calculate
the poisson’s ratio:
a) 0.4
b) 0.5
c) 0.3
d) 0.2
• Q: A 50mm diameter steel bar 200mm long
was subjected to a tensile force. The length
was found to increase by 0.08mm and
decrease in diameter was 0.006mm. Calculate
the poisson’s ratio:
a) 0.4
b) 0.5
c) 0.3
d) 0.2
• Q. A copper bar of a rectangular section of
20mmx30mm and a length of 500mm is
subjected to an axial compressive load of
60kN. If E =102kN/mm2 and v for copper
=0.34, calculate the changes in length and
sides of the bar.
TENSILE TEST (Stress Strain Diagram)
• Lo= Gauge Length

Specimen as per ASTM standards

• Stress strain diagram
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RY9X_O8
is-k
(Explained with tensile test)
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zc3b6Ld
DFtY
Stress -Strain Diagram for Ductile Material
• The diagram begins with a
straight line from the origin O
to point A, which means that
the relationship between stress
and strain in this initial region
is not only linear but also
proportional.* Beyond point
A, the proportionality between
stress and strain no longer
exists; hence the stress at A is
called the proportional limit.

• The slope of the straight line

from O to A is called the
modulus of elasticity.
Because the slope has units of
stress divided by strain,
modulus of elasticity has the
same units as stress.
• With an increase in stress
beyond the proportional
limit, the strain begins to
increase more rapidly for
each increment in stress.
The stress-strain curve has
a smaller and smaller
slope, until, at point B, the
curve becomes horizontal.

• At point B considerable
elongation of noticeable
increase in the tensile
force (from B to C). This
phenomenon is known as
yielding of the material,
and point B is called the
yieldpoint.
• In the region from B to C , the
material becomes perfectly plastic,
which means that it deforms without
an increase in the applied load.

• After undergoing the large strains

that occur during yielding in the
region BC, the steel begins to strain
harden. During strain hardening,
the material undergoes changes in
its crystalline structure, resulting in
increased resistance of the material
to further deformation.

• Elongation of the test specimen in

this region requires an increase in
the tensile load and therefore the
stress-strain diagram has a positive
slope from C to D.
• The load eventually
reaches its maximum
value, and the
corresponding stress (at
point D) is called the
ultimate stress.

• Further stretching of the

bar is actually
accompanied by a
reduction in the load,
and fracture finally
occurs at a point such as
E.
• True stress and True strain
Measures of Ductility

• L is the original gage length and L is the

0 1

distance between the gage marks at fracture

• A is the original cross-sectional area and A is

0 1

the final area at the fracture section.

• Stress strain diagram for Brittle materials

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mlDx_ssD
Gv4
• Practice Q

• A round section of some material of a diameter of

12.5mm and a gauge length of 100mm was tested in
tension upto fracture and the following observations
were made:
– Yield load=29.6kN Load at fracture=37kN
– Max load=44.8kN Diameter at neck=9.1mm
– Total extension in the sample=27.6mm
– Calculate a) Yield strength, b) UTS, c) Actual breaking
strength, d) %age elongation
• Practice Q

• A tensile test was conducted on a mild steel bar. The

following data was obtained from the test:
– Diameter of the steel bar = 3cm
– Gauge length of the bar = 20cm
– Load at elastic limit = 250kN
– Extension at a load of 150kN = 0.21mm
– Maximum load = 380kN
– Total extension = 60mm
– Diameter of the rod at failure = 2.25cm
Calculate: a) Young’s Modulus, b) stress at elastic limit
c) %age elongation, d) %age decrease in area
• Strength, Ductility and Toughness

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WSRqJdT
2COE