Properties of Metal

Garcia, Jon Raniel R. Engr. Rogelio Serafin

BsMarE 1-y1-3
Properties of Metals

• There is no simple definition of metal; however, any chemical

element having “metallic properties” is classed as a metal. “Metallic
properties” are defined as luster, good thermal and electrical
conductivity, and the capability of being permanently shaped or
deformed at room temperature.
• “Metallic properties” are defined as luster, good thermal and
electrical conductivity, and the capability of being permanently
shaped or deformed at room temperature.
Materials Under Load

• Strength of materials, also called mechanics of materials, deals

with the behavior of solid objects subject to stresses and strains.
The complete theory began with the consideration of the behavior of
one and two dimensional members of structures, whose states of
stress can be approximated as two dimensional, and was then
generalized to three dimensions to develop a more complete theory
of the elastic and plastic behavior of materials
• The mechanical properties of materials define the behavior of
materials under the action of external force called loads. There are
measure of strength and lasting characteristics of the material in
service and are of good importance in the design of tools, machines
and structures.
• The strength of a material is its ability to withstand an applied load
without failure or plastic deformation. The field of strength of
materials deals with forces and deformations that result from their
acting on a material
 Tensile Stress

• Tensile stress can be defined as the magnitude of force applied along an

elastic rod, which is divided by the cross-sectional area of the rod in a direction
perpendicular to the applied force. Tensile means the material is under tension
and that there are forces acting on it trying to stretch the material.
• The formula for computing the tensile stress in a rod is:
Tensile Stress = F / A
• Tensile stress can cause stress corrosion cracking (SCC), which is the
combined influence of tensile stress and a corrosive environment. The
required tensile stresses may be in the form of directly applied stresses
or residual stresses.
• Tensile stress (σ) is the resistance of an object to a force that could tear
it apart. It is calculated with the highest tension endured by the object in
question without tearing, and is measured in Newtons/mm2, but was
originally denoted in tons/inch2. 
• Tensile stress may also be known as normal stress or tension. When an
applied stress is less than the material’s tensile strength, the material
returns completely or partially to its original shape and size. As the stress
approaches the value of the tensile strength, the material has already
begun to flow plastically and rapidly forms a constricted region called a
neck, which is the point at which it fractures.
Tensile Stress
 Compressive Stress

• Compressive stress is a force that causes a material to deform to

occupy a smaller volume. When a material is experiencing a compressive
stress, it is said to be under compression. A high amount of compressive
stress, such as tensile stress, leads to failure due to tension. A
compressive stress causes a material to compress or shorten.

• Compressive stress compresses a material by either crushing it or

deforming it and ultimately causing it to fail during operation.
• There are two types of materials that exist: ductile and brittle. Once
solidified, concrete is a brittle material, and when such materials are
subjected to compressive stress, they just fracture because the
stored energy in the material is suddenly released. Conversely,
ductile materials will be squeezed into a smaller volume or will
experience a slow distortion, but there will be no single point of
failure.
Compressive Stress
 Shear Stress

• Shear stress, force tending to cause deformation of a material by

slippage along a plane or planes parallel to the imposed stress. The
resultant shear is of great importance in nature, being intimately related to
the downslope movement of earth materials and to earthquakes. Shear
stress may occur in solids or liquids; in the latter it is related to fluid
viscosity.
• Shear stress, often denoted by τ (Greek: tau), is the component of stress
 coplanar with a material cross section. It arises from the shear force, the
component of force vector parallel to the material cross section. 
Normal stress, on the other hand, arises from the force vector component 
perpendicular to the material cross section on which it acts.
• The formula to calculate average shear stress is force per unit area
τ = F/A
• where: τ = the shear stress;
• F = the force applied;
• A = the cross-sectional area of material with area parallel to the
applied force vector.
Tensile, Compressive and Shear Stress
Elastic Limit

• Elastic limit, maximum stress or force per unit area within a solid
material that can arise before the onset of permanent deformation.
When stresses up to the elastic limit are removed, the material
resumes its original size and shape. Stresses beyond the elastic
limit cause a material to yield or flow. For such materials the elastic
limit marks the end of elastic behaviour and the beginning of plastic
behaviour. For most brittle materials, stresses beyond the elastic
limit result in fracture with almost no plastic deformation
• The elastic limit is in principle different from the proportional limit,
which marks the end of the kind of elastic behaviour that can be
described by Hooke’s law, namely, that in which the stress is
proportional to the strain (relative deformation) or equivalently that in
which the load is proportional to the displacement. The elastic limit
nearly coincides with the proportional limit for some elastic
materials, so that at times the two are not distinguished; whereas for
other materials a region of nonproportional elasticity exists between
the two. The proportional limit is the end point of what is called
linearly elastic behaviour.
 Yield Point

• Yield point, in mechanical engineering, load at which a solid

material that is being stretched begins to flow, or change shape
permanently, divided by its original cross-sectional area; or the
amount of stress in a solid at the onset of permanent deformation.
The yield point, alternatively called the elastic limit, marks the end of
elastic behaviour and the beginning of plastic behaviour. When
stresses less than the yield point are removed, the material returns
to its original shape.
• For many materials that do not have a well-defined yield point, a
quantity called yield strength is substituted. Yield strength is the
stress at which a material has undergone some arbitrarily chosen
amount of permanent deformation, often 0.2 percent. A few
materials start to yield, or flow plastically, at a fairly well-defined
stress (upper yield point) that falls rapidly to a lower steady value
(lower yield point) as deformation continues. Any increase in the
stress beyond the yield point causes greater permanent deformation
and eventually fracture
Ultimate Strength

• Ultimate strength is an attribute related to a material, rather than

just a specific specimen made of the material, and as such it is
quoted as the force per unit of cross section area (N/m2). The
ultimate strength is the maximum stress that a material can
withstand before it breaks or weakens For example, the ultimate
tensile strength (UTS) of AISI 1018 Steel is 440 MPa. In Imperial
units, the unit of stress is given as lbf/in² or 
pounds-force per square inch. This unit is often abbreviated as psi.
One thousand psi is abbreviated ksi.
• Ultimate Strength the quantity of the utmost tensile, compressive,
or shearing stress that a given unit area of a certain material is
expected to bear without failing.
• Ultimate Strength is the maximum stress that a material can
withstand while being stretched or pulled. The ultimate strength of a
material is calculated by dividing the cross-section area of the
material tested by the stress placed on the material, which is
generally expressed in pounds or tons per square inch of material. It
is the final amount of stress sustained in a tensile test at the exact
moment an object ruptures
Breaking Strength
• The Breaking strength of a material is the maximum amount of
tensile stress that the material can withstand before failure, such as
breaking or permanent deformation. Tensile strength specifies the
point when a material goes from elastic to plastic deformation. It is
expressed as the minimum tensile stress (force per unit area) needed
to split the material apart.
• Breaking strength testing for metals will determine how much a
particular alloy will elongate before reaching its ultimate tensile
strength and how much load a particular piece of metal can
accommodate before it loses structural integrity. Therefore, it is a very
important concept in material science and for safety considerations.
Breaking strength is a limit state of tensile stress that leads to tensile
failure in one of two manners:
• Ductile Failure - Yield as the first stage of failure, some
hardening in the second stage and breakage after a possible
"neck" formation
• Brittle Failure - Sudden breaking in two or more pieces at a low
stress state
Breaking Strength