MBEYA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND TECHINICAL EDUCATION

DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL SCIENCES

MT 6201: STRENGTH OF THE MATERIALS AND ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS
FACILITATOR: KADALA,C
Email: charles.kadala@must.ac.tz
CoSTE – Office No. 107
VENUE: CBSMT ON TUESDAY AT 16.50 pm -19.05 pm

1
MT 6201: STRENGTH OF THE MATERIALS AND ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS

 venue: CBSMT on TUESDAY 16:5 -19:05 pm

Facilitator name: Kadala, C
Email: kadala.charles@must.ac.tz
Mode of Assessment
• Class tests (2 tests)……………….30%
- Test one 5th week carries 15%
- Test one 7th week carries 15%
• Assignments……10% to be submitted on 7th week
• End of Semester examination…....60%
Wednesday, November 8, 2023 KADALA, D. C 2
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS AND
ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS
Concept to be covered;
• Elastic materials, plastic materials,
• brittle materials, and ductile materials, strength of materials, elastic
and plastic deformation, stress, strain,
• Hooke’s law, proportional and elastic limits, yield point, breaking
stress,
• Young’s modulus, equations of stress-strain and their relationship,
force in a bar, energy stored, energy stored per unit volume.

11/8/2023
 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
• When we talk of strength of materials we refer to matters that govern
engineering of materials, durability of buildings, bridges, roofs and other
engineering materials.
• An atom is a regular order in which electrons, protons and neutrons in a
material are arranged, in order to form a large material these atoms have
regular manner in which they are arranged.
• This regular pattern of arrangement of atoms in material is called crystal.
• Strength of a material is largely affected by arrangement of crystals in a
material.
• The arrangement of crystals in a material is called crystalline structure of a
material.
Deformation of a material happens if the crystals slide on top of one
another or are detached from one another.

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 PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
• The advancement in technology is only possible through our detailed
understanding of properties of materials, in connection with their
mechanical, thermal, electrical and magnetic behaviors.
• By such understanding methods can be devised to develop materials
of specific properties to meet our various needs

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 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
• Mechanical properties of materials may be defined as:
a) The behavior of materials under action of external forces called
loads
b) The study of the internal effect of external forces applied to
structural members
c) The study dealing with the deformations due to forces applied on
the materials
Mechanical properties of materials are concerned with its behavior
under the action of external forces- a matter of importance to
engineers when selecting a material for a particular job

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 DIFFFERENT MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF
MATERIALS
STRENGHT:
Deals with how great an applied force a material can withstand
before breaking
Mechanical property that enables a material to resist deformation
load
Is its capacity to withstand destruction under the action of external
forces (loads)
Relates to the maximum force which can be applied to a material
without it breaking

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Cont..
STIFFNESS:
• This relates to the resistance which a material offers to having its
shape or size changed or both changed
• Measure of the difficulty of changing the shape of an object
• Stiffness is the resistance which a material offers to having its shape
and size changed.
DUCTILITY/WORKABILITY:
• Relates to the ability of the material to be hammered, pressed, bent,
rolled, cut, or stretched into useful shapes
• Ductility is the ability of a material to be permanently stretched.

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Cont.….
A DUCTILE MATERIAL:
• Is a material which can be permanently stretched
E.g. Copper
A TOUGH MATERIAL:
• Is the one which is not brittle, i.e. it does not crack readily
E.g. Steel
BRITTLENESS:
• Is the property of a material to break immediately when the elastic limit is
exceeded.
• Brittleness is the condition of material not to be permanently stretched.
• Brittle materials are materials that break soon after elastic limit is reached.
Examples: wood, glass, cast iron etc.

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Cont.….
PLASTICITY:
• Is the property of the material to be deformed permanently even if
the load is removed
• Is the ability to undergo some permanent deformation without
rupture (brittle) after elastic limit range has been exceeded
ELASTICITY:
• Is the property of a material to return to its original size and shape
when the force/load which has been deforming it is removed
Example: rubber bands

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Cont..
Elastic Hysteresis:
• Elastic hysteresis is the tendency of an extension during loading to be
less than extension during unloading.
Fatigue
• Fatigue is the tendency of material that is subjected to continuous
stretching and outstretching force to lose its strength.
• The failure of a material under this circumstance is called fatigue
failure or fatigue fracture.
Creep
• Creep is the gradual increase in strain which occurs when a material is
subjected to stress for a long period of time.

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 ELASTIC PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS
• In our study of mechanics thus far, we assumed that objects remain
undeformed when external forces act on them
• In reality all objects are deformable.
i.e. it is possible to change the shape or size of an object (or both)
through the application of external forces.
Although these changes are observed as large scale deformation, the
internal forces that resist the deformation are due to short-range
forces between atoms
The elastic properties of solids will be discussed in terms of stress
and strain

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Cont.…
STRESS:
• Is the quantity that is proportional to the force causing deformation
STRAIN:
Is the measure of the degree of deformation
Consider a bar of any material such as a metal round bar

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TENSILE FORCE:

If a pulling force is applied to a bar, the force will tend to extend or to

increase the length of the bar. This force is called tensile force.

If xo = is the original length

X = the new length,
Then the change in length will be ∆𝑥 = X - xo

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 COMPRESSION FORCE
• If the compressing force is applied toa bar the force will tend to reduce the
length of the bar.
• This force is called compression force

If xo = is the original length

X = the new length,
then the change in length will be ∆𝑥 = X - xo
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EXTENSION (∆x or e)
• Is the increase in length of a material caused by the applied force
i.e. ∆𝑥 or e = X - xo
Where: xo = the original length of the material
X = the new length of the material
∆x or e = extension
• The extension produced in a sample of material depends on the
following;
i. The nature of the material
ii. The stretching force
iii. The cross-section area of the sample and
iv. Its original length

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STRAIN (ε)
• Is the ratio of the extension (change in length) to the original length
• It has no unit
i.e.
Let xo = is the original length of the material
∆x or e = is the extension due to the applied force (load)
then the strain is given by;
extensio (e)
strain (ε) =
original length (xo )

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STRESS (𝜎)
• Is the force acting on unit cross section area
• Is the force per unit cross section area acting on an object
i.e.
force (F)
Stress (𝜎) =
cross section area (A)
• The SI unit of stress is the Pascal (Pa) or Nm−2
A stress which causes an increase of length puts the sample in
tension and so we talk about a tensile stress and tensile strain.

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RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STRESS AND STRAIN
The Hooke's Law states that:
“As the elastic limit of the material has not been reached, the applied stress on
the material is directly proportional to the strain produced”
i.e.
stress (𝜎) α strain (ε)
stress (𝜎) = Constant x strain (ε)
stress (𝜎) = E x strain (ε)
where:
E = is the proportionality constant called elastic modulus which depends
on the material being deformed and on the nature of the deformation
Elastic modulus (E):
• Is ratio of stress to strain
stress (𝝈)
Elastic modulus (E) =
strain (ε)
• SI unit of elastic modulus is Pascal (Pa) or 𝐍𝐦−𝟐
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 STRESS – STRAIN GRAPH
• The elastic behavior of a solid particularly that of a metal can
conveniently be illustrated by a diagram called stress- strain
curve/diagram/graph
• In order to obtain such a diagram, a metal in the form of a wire is taken
and subjected to an increasing tensile stress
• The process is continued till the wire breaks
• Noting each time the stress applied and the corresponding strain
produced and a graph is plotted
• The curve so obtained is known as stress-strain graph

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Stress – strain curve

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Cont.…
• To study the stress – strain diagram to obtain necessary information regarding
the elastic behavior of solids, the curve can conveniently be divided into four
parts such as OA, AB, BC and CD
PART OA:
• The part OA of the curve is a straight line.
• I.e. in this region there is a linear relationship between stress and strain and
the material obeys Hooke’s law.
• If the stress is not carried beyond A, the sample returns to its original length ,
when the stress is removed
• Portion of the curve from O to A is the region of perfect elasticity
• The stress corresponding to the point A is called elastic limit
Elastic Limit:
 Elastic limit is the maximum load which a body can experience and still
regain its original shape and size when the load has been removed.
 Elastic limit is sometimes called limit of proportionality.
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PART AB
• After A, the curve takes a slight bend and continues up to B
• As seen in the curve the part AB is almost parallel to strain axis
• This indicates that in this region a slight increase in stress produces a larger
strain in the material
• The point B is known as yield point.
• At any point between A and B, if the stress is taken off the sample will
never returns back to original length but acquires a permanent set or strain
Yield Point:
• Yield point is the point beyond elastic limit at which there is an increase in
extension.
• At yield point the internal structure of a material has changed and the planes of
crystals have effectively slid over one another.
• At this point a material is said to exhibit plastic behavior.
Example of materials that exhibit yield point is MILD STEEL.

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PART BC
• After passing point B, the sample seems to regain strength some what.
Here more stress than in the region AB is necessary to produce same strain.
• This phenomenon will continue up to C.
• The stress corresponding to point C is called maximum or ultimate stress,
because beyond this point the sample elongates rapidly
• A local contraction develops at some part of the material where finally
fracture occurs. The position of the material where it will occur is however
unpredictable
Breaking Stress/Ultimate tensile strength:
• Breaking stress is the maximum stress that can be applied to a material.
• Is the stress of which when exceeded, the material will loose its elastic
property
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PART CD
• CD is the portion where local contraction or necking occurs and
breaking may occur at any point between C and D.
• The stress for which the sample breaks is called breaking stress
Note:
• The part of the extension curve up to the elastic A is called elastic
deformation and
• The remaining part of the curve from A to C is known as plastic
deformation

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cont..
Allowable Stress:
• Is the allowed working stress on a certain material
• This is always less than the maximum stress

Factor Of Safety (η)

allowed stress
• The factor of safety (η) =
maximum stress
• The factor of safety (η) is less than 1 (i.e. η < 1)

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 Elastic properties and interatomic forces
• The elastic properties of materials can be understood by considering
the atomic structure of matter.
• We know that the atoms in solid are held together in their respective
positions by means of inter-atomic force
• It is also found that in normal state, the atoms in a crystal are located
at positions of minimum potential energy
• This is their equilibrium position. At such position the net interatomic
force acting on an atom is zero.
• The nature of variation of interatomic force F with atomic separation r
is shown in figure below;

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11/8/2023
Cont..
• The forces are predominantly repulsive for small separation but becomes
predominantly attractive for large separation.
• In the normal state, these two forces balance and the net force is zero.
• The separation ro in this state is called equilibrium distance.
• But when a tensile stress is applied to a body the tensile stress increases
the separation of the atoms and the atoms will experience a force of
attraction.
• If the external force is removed, the attractive force between the atoms
brings them back to their equilibrium position. On the other hand if a rod is
compressed, the separation r of the atoms reduce and as a result a force of
repulsion will develop between them
• On the removal of the external force, this force of repulsion again takes the
atom back to their equilibrium positions.

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Cont..
• The displacement suffered by individual atoms for particular tensile
force depends upon the strength of the interatomic forces.
• Stronger the interatomic forces, smaller will be the displacement.
• Hence for particular stress the corresponding strain will be less and
the value of Young’s modulus will be larger.
• In the case of a shear stress the distance between atoms in a plane
remains the same, but neighbouring planes of the atoms in a solid
slide past each other which results in shear strain.

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 ELASTIC MODULUS
• We shall consider three types of deformation and define an elastic
modulus for each
a) Young’s modulus, which measures the resistance of a solid to
change in its length
b) Shear modulus, which measures the resistance to motion of the
planes of a solid sliding past each other
c) Bulk modulus, which measures the resistance that solids or liquids
offer to change in their volume

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 YOUNG’S MODULUS OR ELASTICITY IN LENGTH (E)
• Under elastic conditions, a modulus of elasticity of a material is
defined as the ratio of tensile stress to tensile strain.
tensile stress
i.e. Young’s modulus, E =
tensile strain
where: tensile strain = e/L
tensile stress = F/A
Thus;
F/A FL
Young’s modulus, E = =
e/L eA
• The SI unit of Young’s modulus is Pascal (Pa) or 𝐍𝐦−𝟐

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 Example 01
Find maximum load which may be placed on a steel wire of
1
diameter 1.0mm if the permitted strain must not exceed and
1000
the Young modulus of steel is 2.0 x 1011Pa.
Solution:
𝐹𝑙
𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚, £ =
𝑒𝐴
𝑒𝐴£
𝐹 =
𝑙
1
= × 𝜋 × (5 × 10−4 )2 × 2 × 1011
1000
= 157𝑁
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 POISSON’S RATIO
• When a material is elongated by a certain amount of force the dimension
perpendicular to the direction of force are decreased, and the dimension
parallel to the direction of force increases.
• If we assume that w and ∆w are width and change in width, also L and ∆L
are length and change in length respectively, then the Poisson's ratio can
be defined as the ratio of lateral strain to the longitudinal strain
i.e.
lateral strain
Poisson's ratio =
longitudinal strain
Where; lateral strain = - ∆w /w and longitudinal strain = ∆L / L
Thus,
− ∆w /w − ∆w L
Poisson's ratio = = x
∆L / L w ∆L
The negative sign shows that if the length increases, the width decreases.
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Force in a bar due to contraction or expansion
• Suppose a rod of cross sectional area A is heated and then allowed to
cool but prevented from contracting by a force, F. If the rod has
original length ιo length after expansion ι , decrease in temperature
∆θ, then the linear expansivity of the rod α is given by;
ι−ιo
linear expansivity of the rod , α = but ι − ιo = extension, e
∆θιo
thus,
e
linear expansivity of the rod , α =
∆θιo
Extension, e = α∆θιo ……………………….(i)
F ιo
• If the Young’s modulus of the rod is E which is given by
eA
EAe
Then the force, F will be = ……………………(ii)
ιo

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Cont..
• Inserting equation (i) into (ii) we have,
EAe
F =
ιo
EAα∆θιo
=
ιo
F = EA α ∆θ ………………(iii)

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 Example 2
A steel rod of cross sectional area 2cm2 is heated to 100oC and
then prevented from contracting when it is cooled to 10oC. the
linear expansivity of steel is 12 x 10-6K-1 and Young modulus is 2 x
1011Nm-2. Calculate force needed to be applied to prevent the steel
from contracting.
Solution:
𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚, 𝐹 = 𝛼 ∆𝜃 𝐴£
= 12 × 10−6 × 100 − 10 2 × 10−4 2 × 1011
= 38,400𝑁

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 THANKS FOR YOUR ATTENTION

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 ENERGY STORED IN A STRETCHED WIRE
• When a bar of length L is acted upon by a force, F producing an
extension e then the elastic potential energy stored (strain energy) in
a bar is equal to the total work done by the force

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Cont..
• Now consider a force, F acting upon a bar producing a small extension de
so that the force is considered to be constant, then the work done dw is
given by
dw = Fde
• The total work done in increasing the extension from 0 to e is given by
W e
0
dw = 0
Fde
e
W = 0 Fde
If the bar obeys the Hooke's law, F = ke
e
Then, W = 0 kede
e2 e
W=k
2 0

ke2
W=
2
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Cont..
• This amount of work done is equal to the energy stores in a stretched
material (E), that is energy stored in a stretched bar is
1
E= ke2
2
• If F = ke and k = F/e
Then
1 F 2
E = ( )e
2 e
1
E = Fe
2
this is equal to the area of a triangle in the graph of force-extension
graph

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 FORCE – EXTENSION GRAPH
The energy in the wire when it is stretched can also be found from the
force – extension graph

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Cont..
• If the Hooke’s law is obeyed from o to A is a straight line and OAB is a
triangle.
• Therefore the energy stored in the wire for the whole extension, e
and the final stretching force, F is given by
E = Area of a triangle OAB
1
= x AB x OB
2
1
= xFx e
2
1
= Fe
2
The area under the graph above is numerically equal to the energy
stored in the wire

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 ENERGY PER UNIT VOLUME OF A WIRE
• When the elastic limit is not exceeded the energy per unit volume of a
stretched wire is given by a useful simple formula, as follows.
1
The energy stored = Fe and
2
The volume of the wire = AL
where; A is the cross sectional area
L is the length of the wire
nergy stored
So, energy per unit volume =
volume of the wire

1 Fe 1 F e
= = x ( )x ( )
2 AL 2 A L

1
Thus, energy per unit volume = x stress x strain
2
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 CONNECTION OF WIRES
• Two or more wires can be connected in either series or parallel
• For parallel connection of the wires, the extension produced in each wire
is the same (i.e. e1 = e2 = e while F1 is not equal to F2)
• For series connection of the wires, the force in each wire is the same
while the extension is different

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Example 03
A uniform steel of length 4m and cross sectional area 3 x 10-6m2 is
extended by 1mm. Calculate energy stored in the wire if elastic limit is not
exceeded. (Young modulus = 2 x 1011Pa).
Solution
1 1 𝐴£ 2
𝑊𝑑 = 𝐹𝑒 = 𝑒
2 2 𝑙
3 × 10−6 × 2 × 1011
= (10−3 )2
2 × 4
75𝑚𝐽

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Example 04
Two vertical wires X and Y suspended at the same horizontal level are connected by
a light rod XY at their lower ends as shown below.

The wires have the same length, l and cross sectional area, A. A weight of 30N is
placed at O on the rod where XO:OY = 1:2. Both wires are stretched and the rod XY
remains horizontal. If wire X has Young modulus, £1 = 1011Pa, calculate Young
modulus of wire Y, £2 assuming that elastic limit is not exceeded for both wires.

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 Solution:
When the system is at equilibrium, the summation of moments about O is zero.
𝐹1 = 2𝐹2 −− −(𝑖)

𝐹1 𝑙
£1
𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛, = 𝑒𝐴
£2 𝐹2 𝑙
𝑒𝐴
£1 𝐹1
=
£2 𝐹2
𝐹2
£2 = £1 −− − 𝑖𝑖
𝐹1
Putting equation (i) into (ii)
𝐹2 1
£2 = £1 = × 1011 = 5 × 1010 𝑃𝑎
11/8/2023 2𝐹2 2
 SHEAR STRESS, SHEAR STRAIN AND MODULUS OF RIGIDITY
Shear stress:
• Is the stress which tends to change the shape of the body
• Is the ratio of the tangential force to the area of the face to be
sheared
• In this case shear force acts parallel to the face but in opposite
direction
shear force F
i.e. Shear stress = =
area in shear A
• Its SI unit is Nm−2

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Shear strain:
• Is strain resulting due to shear stress
Consider the following block acted upon by a shear force tending to change
its shape

the horizontal distance the sheared for𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑠

Shear strain =
the height of the object
∆x
= = tan θ
h
∆x
Thus, Shear strain = = tan θ
h

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Shear Modulus (G):
• It is also called modulus of rigidity or elasticity of shape
• Shear modulus is defined as the ratio of the shear stress to the shear strain.
shear stress
i.e. Shear modulus, G =
shear strain

F ∆x
where; Shear stress = and Shear strain =
A h
F
shear stress A
then, G = = ∆x
shear strain
h

F F
G= = ∆x
Atan θ A( h )

Fh F
• G= =
A∆x A tanθ
If θ is very small angle, then tan θ ~ θ
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 BULK STRESS, BULK STRAIN AND BULK MODULUS
Consider the following situation

Bulk stress:
• Sometimes is called volume stress
• It is defined as the ratio of the magnitude of the normal force to the
area
F
i.e. Bulk stress = ∆p = and its SI unit is N/m2 (Pa)
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A
Bulk strain:
• Its also called volume strain
• It is the ratio of the change in volume to the original volume
change in volume
i.e. Bulk strain =
original volume
∆V
=-
V

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Bulk modulus:
• It is also called volume elasticity
• Its defined as the ratio of the bulk stress to the bulk strain
F
bulk stress A ∆p
i.e. Bulk modulus, K = = ∆V =
bulk strain − V
− ∆V
V
If ∆V→0,
dp
then,K=-
− dV
V
∆p
K =- v
dV
The negative sign is inserted in this equation so that the bulk modulus is
positive number, this is because an increase in pressure (+ ∆p) causes a
decrease in volume (- ∆V) and vice versa

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 Compressibility of the material
• Compressibility factor is the reciprocal of bulk modulus.
1
i.e. Compressibility factor =
bulk modulus

1
=
K
∆V
=-
VdP

Both liquids and solid have a bulk modulus, However there is no shear modulus
and no Young’s modulus for liquids because a liquid will not sustain a shearing
stress or a tensile stress, in stead it will flow

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 THANKS FOR YOUR ATTENTION

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