LEARNER’S MODULE

LEO C. LAURIO, LPT

INSTRUCTOR
COLLEGE OF INDUSTRIAL TECHNOLOGY

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SUBJECT: AST 212 - STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
COURSE: All 2ND Year Students
DESCRIPTION: Axial Stress and Strain; stress for torsion and bending; beam deflections; determinate
and indeterminate beams, elasticity instability.
TOPIC: I. INTRODUCTION TO STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
WEEK #: 2
HOURS: 3 hrs

Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to;
 Understand the concept of strength of materials.
 Familiarized the basic terminologies and fundamental units.
 Drawn/Sketch the free body diagram of forces in a materials.

CONTENT
Introduction:
This module presents the basic concepts in strength of materials. The study of strength of materials and the
practice of stress analysis and design inherently require problem solving. The module considers the types of
loading, which are direct axial loads, direct shearing forces, and bearing loads. Products, machines, and structures
must be designed to be safe and to provide satisfactory performance during the intended use. Before being able to
design safe and effective components, a designer must be able to properly calculate all loads, a skill generally
developed through previous study of statics. Hollow tubing is very useful in machine structures because it provides
good section properties for members loaded as beams in bending and for torsional loading because of the closed
cross section. The chapter also presents an overview of the key concepts , definition of terms, basic units, forces and
laws of forces.

CONCEPT OF STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

The field of strength of materials, also called mechanics of materials, typically refers to various methods of
calculating the stresses and strains in structural members, such as beams, columns, and shafts. The methods employed to
predict the response of a structure under loading and its susceptibility to various failure modes takes into account the
properties of the materials such as its yield strength, ultimate strength, Young's modulus, and Poisson's ratio. In addition,
the mechanical element's macroscopic properties (geometric properties) such as its length, width, thickness, boundary
constraints and abrupt changes in geometry such as holes are considered.
The theory began with the consideration of the behavior of one and two dimensional members of structures, whose states
of stress can be approximated as two dimensional, and was then generalized to three dimensions to develop a more
complete theory of the elastic and plastic behavior of materials. An important founding pioneer in mechanics of materials
was Stephen Timoshenko.

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 In the mechanics of materials, the strength of a material is its ability to withstand an applied load without failure
or plastic deformation. The field of strength of materials deals with forces and deformations that result from their acting
on a material. A load applied to a mechanical member will induce internal forces within the member called stresses when
those forces are expressed on a unit basis. The stresses acting on the material cause deformation of the material in various
manners including breaking them completely. Deformation of the material is called strain when those deformations too
are placed on a unit basis.
The stresses and strains that develop within a mechanical member must be calculated in order to assess the load
capacity of that member. This requires a complete description of the geometry of the member, its constraints, the loads
applied to the member and the properties of the material of which the member is composed. The applied loads may be
axial (tensile or compressive), or rotational (strength shear). With a complete description of the loading and the geometry
of the member, the state of stress and state of strain at any point within the member can be calculated. Once the state of
stress and strain within the member is known, the strength (load carrying capacity) of that member, its deformations
(stiffness qualities), and its stability (ability to maintain its original configuration) can be calculated.
The calculated stresses may then be compared to some measure of the strength of the member such as its material
yield or ultimate strength. The calculated deflection of the member may be compared to deflection criteria that are based
on the member's use. The calculated buckling load of the member may be compared to the applied load. The calculated
stiffness and mass distribution of the member may be used to calculate the member's dynamic response and then
compared to the acoustic environment in which it will be used.
Material strength refers to the point on the engineering stress–strain curve (yield stress) beyond which the material
experiences deformations that will not be completely reversed upon removal of the loading and as a result, the member
will have a permanent deflection. The ultimate strength of the material refers to the maximum value of stress reached. The
fracture strength is the stress value at fracture (the last stress value recorded).
A material's strength is dependent on its microstructure. The engineering processes to which a material is
subjected can alter this microstructure. The variety of strengthening mechanisms that alter the strength of a material
includes work hardening, solid solution strengthening, precipitation hardening, and grain boundary
strengthening and can be quantitatively and qualitatively explained. Strengthening mechanisms are accompanied by the
caveat that some other mechanical properties of the material may degenerate in an attempt to make the material stronger.
For example, in grain boundary strengthening, although yield strength is maximized with decreasing grain size,
ultimately, very small grain sizes make the material brittle. In general, the yield strength of a material is an adequate
indicator of the material's mechanical strength. Considered in tandem with the fact that the yield strength is the parameter
that predicts plastic deformation in the material, one can make informed decisions on how to increase the strength of a
material depending its microstructural properties and the desired end effect. Strength is expressed in terms of the limiting
values of the compressive stress, tensile stress, and shear stresses that would cause failure. The effects of dynamic
loading are probably the most important practical consideration of the strength of materials, especially the problem
of fatigue. Repeated loading often initiates brittle cracks, which grow until failure occurs. The cracks always start
at stress concentrations, especially changes in cross-section of the product, near holes and corners at nominal stress
levels far lower than those quoted for the strength of the material.

DEFINITION OF TERMS
TERMS OF LOADING

 Transverse loading – Forces applied perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of a member. Transverse loading causes
the member to bend and deflect from its original position, with internal tensile and compressive strains
accompanying the change in curvature of the member. Transverse loading also induces shear forces that cause shear
deformation of the material and increase the transverse deflection of the member.
 Axial loading – The applied forces are collinear with the longitudinal axis of the member. The forces cause the
member to either stretch or shorten.
 Torsional loading – Twisting action caused by a pair of externally applied equal and oppositely directed force
couples acting on parallel planes or by a single external couple applied to a member that has one end fixed against
rotation.

STRESS TERMS

 Compressive stress (or compression) is the stress state caused by an applied load that acts to reduce the length of the
material (compression member) along the axis of the applied load, it is, in other words, a stress state that causes a
squeezing of the material. A simple case of compression is the uniaxial compression induced by the action of
opposite, pushing forces. Compressive strength for materials is generally higher than their tensile strength. However,
structures loaded in compression are subject to additional failure modes, such as buckling, that are dependent on the
member's geometry.
 Tensile stress is the stress state caused by an applied load that tends to elongate the material along the axis of the
applied load, in other words, the stress caused by pulling the material. The strength of structures of equal cross-
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 sectional area loaded in tension is independent of shape of the cross-section. Materials loaded in tension are
susceptible to stress concentrations such as material defects or abrupt changes in geometry. However, materials
exhibiting ductile behaviour (most metals for example) can tolerate some defects while brittle materials (such as
ceramics) can fail well below their ultimate material strength.
 Shear stress is the stress state caused by the combined energy of a pair of opposing forces acting along parallel lines
of action through the material, in other words, the stress caused by faces of the material sliding relative to one
another. An example is cutting paper with scissors or stresses due to torsional loading.

Stress parameters for resistance

 Yield strength is the lowest stress that produces a permanent deformation in a material. In some materials,
like aluminium alloys, the point of yielding is difficult to identify, thus it is usually defined as the stress required to
cause 0.2% plastic strain. This is called a 0.2% proof stress.
 Compressive strength is a limit state of compressive stress that leads to failure in a material in the manner of ductile
failure (infinite theoretical yield) or brittle failure (rupture as the result of crack propagation, or sliding along a weak
plane – see shear strength).
 Tensile strength or ultimate tensile strength is a limit state of tensile stress that leads to tensile failure in the manner
of ductile failure (yield as the first stage of that failure, some hardening in the second stage and breakage after a
possible "neck" formation) or brittle failure (sudden breaking in two or more pieces at a low-stress state). The tensile
strength can be quoted as either true stress or engineering stress, but engineering stress is the most commonly used.
 Fatigue strength is a more complex measure of the strength of a material that considers several loading episodes in
the service period of an object, and is usually more difficult to assess than the static strength measures. Fatigue
strength is quoted here as a simple range ( ). In the case of cyclic loading it can be appropriately
expressed as an amplitude usually at zero mean stress, along with the number of cycles to failure under that condition
of stress.
 Impact strength is the capability of the material to withstand a suddenly applied load and is expressed in terms of
energy. Often measured with the Izod impact strength test or Charpy impact test, both of which measure the impact
energy required to fracture a sample. Volume, modulus of elasticity, distribution of forces, and yield strength affect
the impact strength of a material. In order for a material or object to have a high impact strength, the stresses must be
distributed evenly throughout the object. It also must have a large volume with a low modulus of elasticity and a high
material yield strength.

Strain Parameters for Resistance

 Deformation of the material is the change in geometry created when stress is applied ( as a result of applied forces,
gravitational fields, accelerations, thermal expansion, etc.). Deformation is expressed by the displacement field of the
material.
 Strain or reduced deformation is a mathematical term that expresses the trend of the deformation change among the
material field. Strain is the deformation per unit length. In the case of uniaxial loading the displacements of a
specimen (for example a bar element) lead to a calculation of strain expressed as the quotient of the displacement and
the original length of the specimen. For 3D displacement fields it is expressed as derivatives of displacement
functions in terms of a second order tensor (with 6 independent elements).
 Deflection is a term to describe the magnitude to which a structural element is displaced when subject to an applied
load.
Stress–strain relations

 Elasticity is the ability of a material to return to its previous shape after stress is released. In many materials, the
relation between applied stress is directly proportional to the resulting strain (up to a certain limit), and a graph
representing those two quantities is a straight line.
The slope of this line is known as Young's modulus, or the "modulus of elasticity." The modulus of elasticity can be used
to determine the stress–strain relationship in the linear-elastic portion of the stress–strain curve. The linear-elastic region
is either below the yield point, or if a yield point is not easily identified on the stress–strain plot it is defined to be between
0 and 0.2% strain, and is defined as the region of strain in which no yielding (permanent deformation) occurs.

 Plasticity or plastic deformation is the opposite of elastic deformation and is defined as unrecoverable strain. Plastic
deformation is retained after the release of the applied stress. Most materials in the linear-elastic category are usually
capable of plastic deformation. Brittle materials, like ceramics, do not experience any plastic deformation and will
fracture under relatively low strain, while ductile materials such as metallics, lead, or polymers will plastically
deform much more before a fracture initiation.

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Consider the difference between a carrot and chewed bubble gum. The carrot will stretch very little before breaking. The
chewed bubble gum, on the other hand, will plastically deform enormously before finally breaking.

DESIGN TERMS
Ultimate strength is an attribute related to a material, rather than just a specific specimen made of the material, and as
such it is quoted as the force per unit of cross section area (N/m 2). The ultimate strength is the maximum stress that a
material can withstand before it breaks or weakens.[12] For example, the ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of AISI 1018
Steel is 440 MPa. In Imperial units, the unit of stress is given as lbf/in² or pounds-force per square inch. This unit is often
abbreviated as psi. One thousand psi is abbreviated ksi.

A factor of safety is a design criteria that an engineered component or structure must achieve. ,
where FS: the factor of safety, R: The applied stress, and UTS: ultimate stress (psi or N/m 2).
Margin of Safety is also sometimes used to as design criteria. It is defined MS = Failure Load/(Factor of Safety ×
Predicted Load) − 1.
For example, to achieve a factor of safety of 4, the allowable stress in an AISI 1018 steel component can be calculated to

be    = 440/4 = 110 MPa, or   = 110×106 N/m2. Such allowable stresses are also known as "design
stresses" or "working stresses."
Design stresses that have been determined from the ultimate or yield point values of the materials give safe and reliable
results only for the case of static loading. Many machine parts fail when subjected to a non-steady and continuously
varying loads even though the developed stresses are below the yield point. Such failures are called fatigue failure. The
failure is by a fracture that appears to be brittle with little or no visible evidence of yielding. However, when the stress is
kept below "fatigue stress" or "endurance limit stress", the part will endure indefinitely. A purely reversing or cyclic stress
is one that alternates between equal positive and negative peak stresses during each cycle of operation. In a purely cyclic
stress, the average stress is zero. When a part is subjected to a cyclic stress, also known as stress range (Sr), it has been
observed that the failure of the part occurs after a number of stress reversals (N) even if the magnitude of the stress range
is below the material's yield strength. Generally, higher the range stress, the fewer the number of reversals needed for
failure.

FAILURE THEORIES
There are four failure theories: maximum shear stress theory, maximum normal stress theory, maximum strain
energy theory, and maximum distortion energy theory. Out of these four theories of failure, the maximum normal stress
theory is only applicable for brittle materials, and the remaining three theories are applicable for ductile materials. Of the
latter three, the distortion energy theory provides most accurate results in a majority of the stress conditions. The strain
energy theory needs the value of Poisson's ratio of the part material, which is often not readily available. The maximum
shear stress theory is conservative. For simple unidirectional normal stresses all theories are equivalent, which means all
theories will give the same result.

 Maximum Shear Stress Theory – This theory postulates that failure will occur if the magnitude of the maximum
shear stress in the part exceeds the shear strength of the material determined from uniaxial testing.
 Maximum Normal Stress Theory – This theory postulates that failure will occur if the maximum normal stress in
the part exceeds the ultimate tensile stress of the material as determined from uniaxial testing. This theory deals with
brittle materials only. The maximum tensile stress should be less than or equal to ultimate tensile stress divided by
factor of safety. The magnitude of the maximum compressive stress should be less than ultimate compressive stress
divided by factor of safety.
 Maximum Strain Energy Theory – This theory postulates that failure will occur when the strain energy per unit
volume due to the applied stresses in a part equals the strain energy per unit volume at the yield point in uniaxial
testing.
 Maximum Distortion Energy Theory – This theory is also known as shear energy theory or von Mises-Hencky
theory. This theory postulates that failure will occur when the distortion energy per unit volume due to the applied
stresses in a part equals the distortion energy per unit volume at the yield point in uniaxial testing. The total elastic
energy due to strain can be divided into two parts: one part causes change in volume, and the other part causes
change in shape. Distortion energy is the amount of energy that is needed to change the shape.
 Fracture mechanics - was established by Alan Arnold Griffith and George Rankine Irwin. This important theory is
also known as numeric conversion of toughness of material in the case of crack existence.

FUNDAMENTAL UNITS
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 The following are the basic units used to calculate the strength of materials:

The S.I. and English Systems

The System International (International Standard System) use newtons (N) and meters (m) for its

units of force and length. The U.S.Customary System (English, imperial, engineering system)
uses pounds (lb) and feet (ft) or inches (in.). The unit of time, seconds (s, sec) is the same in both
systems.

Below are tables that convert units from USCS to S.I. and back (e.g., 1 meter = 39.4 inches), as
well as common conversions within each system (e.g., 1 ft = 12 inches). In general, the Conversion
Factors are listed to 6 significant digits (even though your answers need not be that precise).

LENGTHS, AREAS AND VOLUMES

FORCES, STRESS, LOADS AND MASS

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SAME SYSTEM CONVERSION

FORCE, WEIGHT AND DENSITY

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Examples:

1. The surface area of a small bedroom is 145ft2. Use the fact that 1 ft = 0.3048 m to convert this area
to m2. Round to the nearest tenth.

Solution:

Step1: Find the units we have.

In the problem, we are given 145 ft2, so the units we have are feet squared (ft2)
Step 2: Figure out what units we want.
The problem asks us to convert feet squared (ft2) into meters squared (m2), so we want, meters
squared (m2).
Step 3: Find conversion factors that will help get the units we want.
We are given the conversion factor 1 ft = 0.3048 m; however, since we have feet squared and want
meters squared we need to square both sides of our conversion factor so that we are dealing with units in the
same dimension.
(1ft)2 = (0.3048m)2
1ft2 = 0.0929m2
Step 4: Arrange conversion factors so unwanted units cancel out.
We know that we have feet squared (ft2) and we want meters squared (m2). We want ft2 to cancel
out, so we will put ft2 in the denominator and m2 in the numerator of our conversion factor.

145 ft 2 0.0929 m 2
x = 13.5m2
1 1 ft 2
Our ft2 will cancel, and we can use the zig-zag method to find our answer. (Calculate from left to right.)
A = 13.5m2.

2. The surface area of a postage stamp is 550mm2. Use the fact that 10 mm = 1 cm to convert this area
to cm2. Round to the nearest tenth. (10mm)2 = (1cm)2.
Solution:
From the table;
(10mm)2 = (1cm)2
100mm2 = 1cm2

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 550 mm2 1 cm2
x 2 = 5.5 cm or A = 5.5cm
2 2.
1 100 mm
3. The surface area of a tabletop is 1440 in2. Use the fact that 1 in = 2.54 cm to convert this area to cm2.
Round to the nearest tenth.
Solution:
Suppose that;
1 in = 2.54 cm
( 1 in )2 = (2.54 cm)2
1 in2 = 6.4516 cm2
1440∈¿ 2 6.4516 cm2
x ¿ = 9290.30 cm2 or A = 9290.30 cm2
1 1∈¿ 2 ¿
To get the area, first cancel the in2 unit so that the remaining unit is cm2, then multiply 1440 to 6.4516
cm2.

FORCE
In physics, a force is any influence that, when unopposed, will change the motion of an object. A force can cause
an object with mass to change its velocity (which includes to begin moving from a state of rest), i.e., to accelerate.
Force can also be described intuitively as a push or a pull. A force has both magnitude and direction, making it
a vector quantity. It is measured in the SI unit of newton (N). Force is represented by the symbol F (formerly P).
The original form of Newton's second law states that the net force acting upon an object is equal to the rate at which
its momentum changes with time. If the mass of the object is constant, this law implies that the acceleration of an object is
directly proportional to the net force acting on the object, is in the direction of the net force, and is inversely proportional
to the mass of the object.
Concepts related to force include: thrust, which increases the velocity of an object; drag, which decreases the velocity of
an object; and torque, which produces changes in rotational speed of an object. In an extended body, each part usually
applies forces on the adjacent parts; the distribution of such forces through the body is the internal mechanical stress. Such
internal mechanical stresses cause no acceleration of that body as the forces balance one another.  Pressure, the distribution
of many small forces applied over an area of a body, is a simple type of stress that if unbalanced can cause the body to
accelerate. Stress usually causes deformation of solid materials, or flow in fluids.
TYPES OF FORCE
 Applied Force - An applied force is a force that is applied to an object by a person or another object. If a
person is pushing a desk across the room, then there is an applied force acting upon the object. The applied
force is the force exerted on the desk by the person.
 Gravity Force - The force of gravity is the force with which the earth, moon, or other massively large
object attracts another object towards itself. By definition, this is the weight of the object. All objects upon
earth experience a force of gravity that is directed "downward" towards the center of the earth. The force of
gravity on earth is always equal to the weight of the object as found by the equation:
Fgrav = m * g
where g = 9.8 N/kg (on Earth)
and m = mass (in kg)
 Normal Force - The normal force is the support force exerted upon an object that is in contact with another stable
object. For example, if a book is resting upon a surface, then the surface is exerting an upward force upon the book in
order to support the weight of the book. On occasions, a normal force is exerted horizontally between two objects
that are in contact with each other. For instance, if a person leans against a wall, the wall pushes horizontally on the
person.
 Friction Force - The friction force is the force exerted by a surface as an object moves across it or makes an effort
to move across it. There are at least two types of friction force - sliding and static friction. Though it is not always the
case, the friction force often opposes the motion of an object. For example, if a book slides across the surface of a
desk, then the desk exerts a friction force in the opposite direction of its motion. Friction results from the two
surfaces being pressed together closely, causing intermolecular attractive forces between molecules of different
surfaces. As such, friction depends upon the nature of the two surfaces and upon the degree to which they are pressed
together. The maximum amount of friction force that a surface can exert upon an object can be calculated using the
formula below:
Ffrict = µ • Fnorm
 Air Resistance Force - The air resistance is a special type of frictional force that acts upon objects as they travel
through the air. The force of air resistance is often observed to oppose the motion of an object. This force will
frequently be neglected due to its negligible magnitude (and due to the fact that it is mathematically difficult to
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 predict its value). It is most noticeable for objects that travel at high speeds (e.g., a skydiver or a downhill skier) or
for objects with large surface areas.
 Tension Force - The tension force is the force that is transmitted through a string, rope, cable or wire when it is
pulled tight by forces acting from opposite ends. The tension force is directed along the length of the wire and pulls
equally on the objects on the opposite ends of the wire.
 Spring Force - The spring force is the force exerted by a compressed or stretched spring upon any object that is
attached to it. An object that compresses or stretches a spring is always acted upon by a force that restores the object
to its rest or equilibrium position. For most springs (specifically, for those that are said to obey "Hooke's Law"), the
magnitude of the force is directly proportional to the amount of stretch or compression of the spring.

Some Free Body Diagram of Forces

 What is a free body diagram?
The free body diagram helps you understand and solve static and dynamic problem involving forces. It is a
diagram including all forces acting on a given object without the other object in the system. You need to first
understand all the forces acting on the object and then represent these force by arrows in the direction of the force to
be drawn.

Examples of Free Body Diagrams

Example 1 : A book on a table

In this example, there are two forces acting on a book at rest on a table:
1) The weight W exerted by the earth on the book
2) The normal force N exerted by the table on the book.

Example 2 : A suspended block

In this example, there are two forces acting on the suspended block at rest:
1) The weight W exerted by the earth on the block
2) The tension force T exerted by the string (or rope) on the block.

Example 3: A block on a floor with an acting force Fa to full the block.

In this example, the block is being pulled and therefore a force of friction acts on the block. So there are four forces
acting on the block.
1) The weight W exerted by the earth on the block
2) The normal force N exerted by floor on the block.
3) The acting force Fa to pull the block.
4) The force of friction Ff exerted by floor on the block in the direction opposite the motion due to Fa.

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Example 4: A Falling Object
In this example, there is only one force action on the falling object.
1) The weight W exerted by the earth on the falling object.

Example 5 : An box on an incline plane (with no frictions)

In this example, we assume that the inclined plane is frictionless; two forces act on the box:
1) The weight W exerted by the earth on the box.
2) The normal force N exerted by the inclined plane on the box. N is normal to the inclined plane.

Example 6 : An box on an incline plane with an acting force and friction considered
In this example, a force Fa pulls the box upward and frictions are not negligible. Four forces act on the box:
1) The weight W exerted by the earth on the box.
2) The normal force N exerted by the inclined plane on the box. N is normal to the inclined plane.
3) The acting force Fa.
4) The force of friction Fs exerted by the inclined plane on the box in the direction opposite the motion due to Fa.

Example 7 : A block suspended to the ceiling using three strings

A) free body diagram for the block; two forces (lower part of figure below)
1) The weight W exerted by the earth on the box.
2) The tension force T '3 exerted by the string on the block.
B) free body diagram of point P; three forces (upper part of figure below)
1) Tension T1
2) Tension T2
3) Tension T3

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 Example 8 : A system with two blocks, an inclined plane and a pulley

A) free body diagram for block m1 (left of figure below)

1) The weight W1 exerted by the earth on the box.
2) The normal force N
3) The force of friction Fk
4) The tension force T exerted by the string on the block m1.

B) free body diagram of block m2 (right of figure below)

1) The weight of the block W2
2) Tension T '.

LAW OF FORCES

Law in centrifugal force, a fictitious force, peculiar to a particle moving on a circular path,
that has the same magnitude and dimensions as the force that keeps the particle on its circular
path (the centripetal force) but points in the opposite direction.

A stone whirling in a horizontal plane on the end of a string tied to a post on the ground is
continuously changing the direction of its velocity and, therefore, has an acceleration toward
the post. This acceleration is equal to the square of its velocity divided by the length of the
string. According to Newton’s second law, an acceleration is caused by a force, which in this
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case is the tension in the string. If the stone is moving at a constant speed and gravity is
neglected, the inward-pointing string tension is the only force acting on the stone. If the string
breaks, the stone, because of inertia, will keep on going in a straight line tangent to its previous
circular path; it does not move in the outward direction as it would if the centrifugal force were
real.

Although it is not a real force according to Newton’s laws, the centrifugal-force concept is a useful one. For example,
when analyzing the behaviour of the fluid in a cream separator or a centrifuge, it is convenient to study the fluid’s
behaviour relative to the rotating container rather than relative to the Earth; and, in order that Newton’s laws be applicable
in such a rotating frame of reference, an inertial force, or a fictitious force (the centrifugal force), equal and opposite to the
centripetal force, must be included in the equations of motion. In a frame of reference attached to the whirling stone, the
stone is at rest; to obtain a balanced force system, the outward-acting centrifugal force must be included.

Centrifugal force can be increased by increasing either the speed of rotation or the mass of the body or by decreasing the
radius, which is the distance of the body from the centre of the curve. Increasing the mass or decreasing the radius
increases the centrifugal force in direct or inverse proportion, respectively, but increasing the speed of rotation increases it
in proportion to the square of the speed; that is, an increase in speed of 10 times, say from 10 to 100 revolutions per
minute, increases the centrifugal force by a factor of 100. Centrifugal force is expressed as a multiple of  g, the symbol for
normal gravitational force (strictly speaking, the acceleration due to gravity). Centrifugal fields of more than
1,000,000,000g have been produced in the laboratory by devices called centrifuges.

Law in Force, in mechanics, any action that tends to maintain or alter the motion of a body or to distort it. The concept of
force is commonly explained in terms of Isaac Newton’s three laws of motion set forth in his Principia
Mathematica (1687). According to Newton’s first principle, a body that is at rest or moving at a uniform rate in a straight
line will remain in that state until some force is applied to it. The second law says that when an external force acts on a
body, it produces an acceleration (change in velocity) of the body in the direction of the force. The magnitude of the
acceleration is directly proportional to the magnitude of the external force and inversely proportional to the quantity of
matter in the body. Newton’s third law states that when one body exerts a force on another body, the second body exerts
an equal force on the first body. This principle of action and reaction explains why a force tends to deform a body (i.e.,
change its shape) whether or not it causes the body to move. The deformation of a body can usually be neglected when
investigating its motion.

Because force has both magnitude and direction, it is a vector quantity. The representation of forces by vectors implies
that they are concentrated either at a single point or along a single line. This is, however, physically impossible. On a
loaded component of a structure, for example, the applied force produces an internal force, or stress, that is distributed
over the cross section of the component. The force of gravity is invariably distributed throughout the volume of a body.
Nonetheless, when the equilibrium of a body is the primary consideration, it is generally valid as well as convenient to
assume that the forces are concentrated at a single point. In the case of gravitational force, the total weight of a body may
be assumed to be concentrated at its centre of gravity (see gravity, centre of).

Physicists use the newton, a unit of the International System (SI), for measuring force. A newton is the force needed to
accelerate a body weighing one kilogram by one metre per second per second. The formula F = ma is employed to
calculate the number of newtons required to increase or decrease the velocity of a given body. In countries still using the
English system of measurement, engineers commonly measure force in pounds. One pound of force imparts to a one-
pound object an acceleration of 32.17 feet per second squared.

Law in Momentum, product of the mass of a particle and its velocity. Momentum is a vector quantity; i.e., it has both
magnitude and direction. Isaac Newton’s second law of motion states that the time rate of change of momentum is equal
to the force acting on the particle. See Newton’s laws of motion.

From Newton’s second law it follows that, if a constant force acts on a particle for a given time, the product of force and
the time interval (the impulse) is equal to the change in the momentum. Conversely, the momentum of a particle is a
measure of the time required for a constant force to bring it to rest.

The momentum of any collection of particles is equal to the vector sum of the individual momenta. According
to Newton’s third law, the particles exert equal and opposite forces on one another, so any change in the momentum of
one particle is exactly balanced by an equal and opposite change of the momentum of another particle. Thus, in the
absence of a net external force acting on a collection of particles, their total momentum never changes; this is the meaning
of the law of conservation of momentum. See also conservation law; angular momentum.

Law in Universal Gravitation The quantitative mechanics of the Principia is not to be confused with the mechanical
philosophy. The latter was a philosophy of nature that attempted to explain natural phenomena by means of imagined
mechanisms among invisible particles of matter. The mechanics of the Principia was an exact quantitative description of
the motions of visible bodies. It rested on Newton’s three laws of motion: (1) that a body remains in its state of rest unless
it is compelled to change that state by a force impressed on it; (2) that the change of motion (the change of velocity times
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the mass of the body) is proportional to the force impressed; (3) that to every action there is an equal and opposite
reaction. The analysis of circular motion in terms of these laws yielded a formula of the quantitative measure, in terms of
a body’s velocity and mass, of the centripetal force necessary to divert a body from its rectilinear path into a given circle.
When Newton substituted this formula into Kepler’s third law, he found that the centripetal force holding the planets in
their given orbits about the Sun must decrease with the square of the planets’ distances from the Sun. Because the
satellites of Jupiter also obey Kepler’s third law, an inverse square centripetal force must also attract them to the centre of
their orbits. Newton was able to show that a similar relation holds between Earth and its Moon. The distance of the Moon
is approximately 60 times the radius of Earth. Newton compared the distance by which the Moon, in its orbit of known
size, is diverted from a tangential path in one second with the distance that a body at the surface of Earth falls from rest in
one second. When the latter distance proved to be 3,600 (60 × 60) times as great as the former, he concluded that one and
the same force, governed by a single quantitative law, is operative in all three cases, and from the correlation of the
Moon’s orbit with the measured acceleration of gravity on the surface of Earth, he applied the ancient Latin
word gravitas (literally, “heaviness” or “weight”) to it. The law of universal gravitation, which he also confirmed from
such further phenomena as the tides and the orbits of comets, states that every particle of matter in the universe attracts
every other particle with a force that is proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square
of the distance between their centres.

REFERENCES

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strength_of_materials
 http://ah-engr.com/resources/table_unit_conversion.htm
 https://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/newtlaws/Lesson-2/Types-of-Forces
 http://www.problemsphysics.com/forces/free_body_diagram_forces.html
 https://www.britannica.com/science/law-of-force

STUDENTS ASSESSMENT

Name: ___________________________ Score:

_______
Year/Course: _____________________ Date:
________

QUIZ # 1

A. Multiple Choices.
Direction: Choose the correct answer,write the letter of your answer in your answer
sheet.

1. The property of a material by virtue of which a body returns to its original, shape after
removal of the load is called.
A. Plasticity
B. Elasticity
C. Ductility
D. Malleability
2. Which of the following materials is most elastic?
A. Rubber
B. Plastic
C. Brass
D. Steel
3. Which is the false statement about true stress - strain method?
A. It does not exist
B. It is more sensitive to changes in both metallurgical and mechanical conditions
C. It gives, a more accurate picture of the ductility
D. It can be used for compression test as well
4. The property of a material which allows it to be drawn into a smaller section is
called.
A. Plasticity
B. Ductility
C. Elasticity
D. Malleability

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 5. The stress necessary to initiate yielding is
A. Considerably greater than that necessary to continue it
B. Considerably lesser than that necessary to continue it
C. Greater than that necessary to stop it
D. Lesser than that necessary to stop it

B. ESSAY (Extended Type). Five (5) points each.

1. Explain the difference between S.I units and English system of measurement.
2. Explain briefly the law of momentum.
3. Convert 335000 mm2 to m2. State your solution in step by step procedure.

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