Mechanical Properties of

Advanced Materials

School of Advanced Materials Sciences and

Engineering
Mechanical Properties of Advanced Materials

To improve properties of metals

Understand mechanical aspects:

 Stress and strain relationships of elastic behavior
 Elements of the theory of plasticity.

Understand Metallurgical aspects

 Plastic deformation
 Dislocation theory
 Strengthening mechanisms
 Fracture
Mechanical Properties of Advanced Materials
Subject of interests
Part I Mechanical fundamentals
 Introduction to mechanical metallurgy
 Stress and strain relationships of elastic behavior
Part II Metallurgical fundamentals
 Plastic deformation of single crystals
 Dislocation theory
 Strengthening mechanisms
 Creep
 Fracture
Part III Advanced aspects in mechanical metallurgy
Introduction to mechanical metallurgy
Subjects of interest:

 Introduction to mechanical metallurgy

 Strength of materials - Basic assumptions
 Elastic and plastic behavior
 Average stress and strain
 Tensile deformation of ductile metals
 Ductile vs brittle behaviors
 Constitute failure
 Concept of stress and the types of stresses
 Stress and strain at point
 Shear stress and strain
Introduction
Mechanical behavior: Response of metals to forces or loads.

Application Processing
Strength of materials
Strength of materials deals with relationships between;

 internal resisting forces.

 external loads, which act on some part of a body in equilibrium.

In equilibrium condition, if there are the external

forces acting on the member, there will be the
internal forces resisting the action of the external
loads.

The internal resisting forces are usually expressed by the stress acting over a certain
area, so that the internal force is the integral of the stress times the differential area
over which it acts.
Assumptions in strength of materials
The body is: Anisotropic: is when the body
has property that varies with
direction
 Continuous: No voids or empty spaces.
 Homogeneous: has identical properties at all points.
 Isotropic: has similar properties in all directions.

Macroscopic scale, engineering materials such as steel,

cast iron, aluminum seems to be continuous, homogeneous
and isotropic.
Microscopic scale, metals are made up of an aggregate of
crystal grains having different properties in different
crystallographic directions. However, these crystal grains
are very small, and therefore the properties are
homogenous in the macroscopic scale.
 Tensile deformation of ductile metals

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=67fSwIjYJ-E
Tensile deformation of ductile metals
Elastic and plastic behaviors
All solid materials can be deformed when
subjected to external load.

In elastic region, stress is proportional to

strain. This follows Hook’s law up to the
elastic limit. The material now has elastic
behavior.

At the elastic limit, when the load is

removed, the material will change back to its
original shape.

Beyond the elastic limit, material permanently

deformed or the material has undergone
plastic deformation.

Note: elastic deformations in metals are relatively small in comparison to plastic deformations.
Average stress and strain

A uniform cylindrical bar which is The external load P is balanced by the

subjected to an axial tensile load P. The internal resisting force, giving the
original gauge length Lo has undergone a equilibrium equation;
slight increase in length to Lo+ δ with a
decrease in diameter.
The average elastic strain e is the ratio of
change in length to the original length.
If the stress σ is uniform over the area A, σ =
constant, then
Average stress and strain
Stiffness in Tension - Young’s Modulus
 It is important to distinguish stiffness, which is a measure of the load needed to induce a
given deformation in the material, from the strength, which usually refers to the material’s
resistance to failure by fracture or excessive deformation.
 The stiffness is usually measured by applying relatively small loads and measuring the
resulting deformation.
 This relation, generally known as Hooke’s Law, can be written algebraically as:

Where P and δ are load and deformation, respectively. And k is the materials stiffness of the
materials which is related to temperature, the type and shape of the material.

 This can also be described using stress-strain relation in the elastic region as follows:

 The constant of proportionality E, called Young’s modulus or the modulus of elasticity, is

one of the most important mechanical descriptors of a material. It has the same units as
stress (Pa, MPa or Gpa).
Average stress and strain
Stiffness in Tension - Young’s Modulus

The Hookean stiffness k is now recognizable as being related to the Young’s modulus E and the
specimen geometry as
Average stress and strain
Stiffness in Tension - Young’s Modulus
Below the elastic limit, Hook’s law can be applied, so that the average stress is
proportional to the average strain,

The constant E is the modulus of

elasticity or Young’s modulus.
The Poisson effect
The Poisson effect
A positive (tensile) strain in one direction will also
contribute a negative (compressive) strain in the
other direction, just as stretching a rubber band to
make it longer in one direction makes it thinner in
the other directions. This lateral contraction
accompanying a longitudinal extension is called the
Poisson effect and the Poisson’s ratio is a material
property defined as:

where the minus sign accounts for the sign change

between the strains in width and length directions.

 The stress-strain law of the material must be

extended to include these effects.
The Poisson effect
A material subjected only to a stress σx in the x direction will experience a strain in that
direction given by εx = σx/E. A stress σy acting alone in the y direction will induce an x-
direction strain given from the definition of Poisson’s ratio of εx = -νεy = -ν(σy/E). If the
material is subjected to both stresses σx and σy at once, the effects can be superimposed (since the
governing equations are linear) to give:

Similarly for a strain in the y direction:

This is the case of plane stress where there is no stress action on z plane, but the case of plane
stress is different from plane strain where there will be a change along this direction (εz) and
this can be considered by taking the Poisson strain contributed by the x and y stresses:
The Poisson effect
Plane stress state

Three-dimensional state of stress

The Poisson effect
The Poisson’s ratio is a dimensionless parameter that provides a good deal of insight into the
nature of the material. The major classes of engineered structural materials fall neatly into order
when ranked by Poisson’s ratio:

 It will be noted that the most brittle materials have the lowest Poisson’s ratio, and that the
materials appear to become generally more flexible as the Poisson’s ratio increases.
 The Poisson’s ratio is also related to the compressibility of the material. The bulk modulus
K, also called the modulus of compressibility, is the ratio of the hydrostatic pressure (p)
needed for a unit relative decrease in volume (ΔV/V) :

 Bulk modulus is related to the elastic modulus and the Poisson’s ratio as:
The Poisson effect
Example
A 10 mm thick steel plate, is subjected to uniform edge stresses σx and σy. If the thickness
reduces by 2 × 10−4 mm, estimate the change in the area of the plate. Take E = 200 GPa and ν
= 0.25.

Solution In this case, the normal strains are related to the stresses by

Here, the strain in the thickness εz = -2 × 10−4 /10. Hence, from the expression of εz above: σx +
σy = 16 MPa. Change in area
Ductile and brittle behavior
 Completely brittle materials i.e., ceramics would fracture almost at the elastic limit.

 Brittle metals such as cast iron show small amounts of plasticity before failure.

 For engineering materials, adequate ductility is important because it allows the

materials to redistribute localized stresses.

 Fracture behavior of metal (ductile or brittle) also depends on some conditions, i.e.,
temperature, tension or compression.
Ductile and brittle behavior
Constitute failure
Three general ways that cause failures in structural members and machine elements:

 Excessive elastic deformation

 Yielding or excessive plastic deformation

 Fracture
Constitute failure
Excessive elastic deformation
Failure due to excessive elastic deformation are controlled by the modulus of elasticity not
the strength of the materials.
Constitute failure
Excessive plastic deformation
Excessive plastic deformation occurs when
the elastic limit is exceeded yielding.

Yielding produce permanent change of

shape and can cause fracture.

EX: When component changed in shape, it

cannot function properly any longer.

Failure by excessive plastic deformation is

controlled by the yield strength of the
materials. Even in more complex loading
conditions, yield strength is still a
significant parameter.
Constitute failure
Fracture
Metals fail by sudden brittle fracture
Ex: some ductile metal such as plain carbon steel will undergo ductile to brittle transition
with decreasing temperature.
Tran-granular

Inter-granular
Working stress
To prevent structural members or machine
elements from failure, such members should be
used under a stress level that is lower than its
yield stress σ0. This stress level is called the
working stress σw.
According to American Society of Mechanical
Engineering (ASME), the working stress σw
may be considered as either the yield strength
σ0 or the tensile strength σu divided by a
number called safety factor.

Where Nu = safety factor based on tensile

strength. Nu??1

Safety factor depends on loading/service

conditions, consequences, etc.
Working stress
Concept of stress and the type of stresses
Definition: stress is force per unit area.

There are two kinds of external forces which may act on a body;

 Surface forces: forces distributed over the surface of the body, i.e., hydrostatic pressure.

 Body forces: forces distributed over the volume of the body, i.e., gravitational force,
magnetic force, centrifugal force, thermal stress.
Stress at a point
Consider a body having forces F1…F4 acting
on it, see Fig (a). The body is cut by a plane
passing through point O. If one half is removed
and replaced by an equivalent force F, acting on
the x-sectional area A to remain the static
equilibrium, see Fig (b).

We can resolve F into components (1) normal

to the plane Fn and (2) tangential to the plane
Fs . (a) Equilibrium of an arbitrary body.

The concept of stress at a point is shrinking

the area A into infinitesimal dimensions.

Note: σ and τ depend on the orientation of the plane

passing through O and will vary from point to point.

(b) Force acting on parts.

Stress at a point
The total stress can be resolved into two components;

1. Normal stress (σ) is normal to the plane of A.

2. Shear stress (τ) is tangential in the plane of A.

The force F makes an angle θ with the normal z to the plane x-y of the area A.
The plane containing the normal z and F intersects the plane A along a dash line that makes
an angle φ with the y axis.
The normal stress is given by:
Strain at a point
The average linear strain was defined as the ratio of the change in length to the original
length.

Where:
e = average linear strain.
δ = deformation.
L0= the initial gauge length.

Strain at a point is the ratio of the deformation to the initial gauge length as the gauge
length → 0.

Lf = the final gauge length.

Shear stress
A shear stress is positive if it points in the positive direction on the positive face of a unit
cube. (and negative direction on the negative face).

A shear stress is negative if it points in the negative direction of a positive face of a unit
cube. (and positive direction on the negative face).
Shear strain
Shear strain is the angular change in a body.

The angle at A, which is originally 90o, is decreased by a small amount θ when the shear
stress is applied.

The shear strain γ will be given by:

shear strain