BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

CE 17 HYDRAULICS

Engr. Hebe M. Cuenco-Uy, MECE

College of Engineering
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PREFACE

A module in Hydraulics that emphasizes the continuity equation, energy equation, and
momentum equation. Gives comprehensive knowledge on the properties of common liquids
in the study of hydraulics. It provides the application of fundamental principles to solve
problems involving liquid pressure and corresponding forces resulting from this pressure;
Applications of appropriate equations in performing calculations involving flow velocity,
flow rate and forces exerted by moving liquids in closed conduits and open channels; and
Familiarization and applications of flow measuring devices such as orifice, weirs, etc.

The students using this module are expected to:

1. Discuss the different liquid properties that are involved in the determination of
pressure, forces and flow;
2. Discuss the Continuity Equation with reference to the conservation of mass, Energy
Equation with reference to the Euler Equation, and Momentum Equation with
reference to the Second Law of Newton on motion;
3. Perform calculations related to fluid pressure and forces with the liquid at rest; flow
velocity, flow rate, pressure and forces with liquid flowing in pipes and open
channel; and flow velocity and flow rates in conjunction with different flow
measuring devices;
4. Design laboratory experimental procedure, perform the procedure, and interpret the
result.

All lessons contained in this module aimed to help the students perform calculations related
to fluid pressure and flow that can be used in the design of various hydraulics structure. It
is expected that the learners have already acquired skills in fluid mechanics and mechanics
of deformable bodies.

C. M. D. Hamo-ay
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Learning Packet 1
FUNDAMENTAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
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UNIT 1: FUNDAMENTAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

1.0 Intended Learning Outcome

Define fluid properties that are involved in pressure, forces and flow determination.

1.1 Introduction

A complete introduction to the concept of fluid properties. First, we discuss the definition of
hydraulics and fluids. This is followed by discussion of the units used in Hydraulics. Then,
the General Properties of fluids. Finally, the properties of water and other fluids.

PRE – ASSESSMENT
Answer the following in your own perspective:

1. Define Fluids.
2. Categorize the various fluid properties.

Evaluation Criteria:
Quality/Craftmanship 40%
Creativity/Originality 30%
Effort/Perseverance 20%
Timeliness 10%
Total 100%

1.2 Topics/Discussion

To understand the different properties of fluids, first, we have to understand what exactly is
meant by the term fluids. By definition, anything that can flow is a fluid. The water we
drink, the air we breathe are all examples of fluids. Essentially, all liquids and gases are
fluids.

1.2.1 The Science of Hydraulics

Hydraulics is defined as branch of science concerned with the practical applications of water
and other fluids in motion. The word "hydraulics" originates from the Greek
word ὑδραυλικός (hydraulikos) which in turn originates from ὕδωρ (hydor, Greek for water)
 1 | Hydraulics 3

and αὐλός (aulos, meaning pipe). It is related to fluid mechanics, which in large part provides
its theoretical foundation.

Hydraulics deals with such matters as the flow of liquids in pipes, rivers, and channels and
their confinement by dams and tanks. Some of its principles apply also to gases, usually in
cases in which variations in density are relatively small. Consequently, the scope of
hydraulics extends to such mechanical devices as fans and gas turbines and to pneumatic
control systems.

A prerequisite to the understanding of the motion of fluids, however, is a knowledge of the

pressure exerted by fluids at rest. This study, called hydrostatics is usually included in
hydraulics. The field of hydraulics also includes hydrodynamics, which relates to the forces
exerted by or upon fluids in motion.

1.2.2 Fluids

Fluids are substances capable of flowing, having particles which easily move and change
their relative position without a separation of the mass. Fluids offer practically no resistance
to change of form. They readily conform to the shape of the solid body with which they come
in contact.

Fluids may be divided into liquids and gases. The principal differences between them are:
▪ A liquid has a free surface, and a given mass of a liquid occupies only a given volume in
a container, whereas a gas does not have a free surface, and a given mass occupies all
portions of any container regardless of its size.
▪ Liquids are practically incompressible and usually may be so considered without
introducing appreciable error. On the other hand, gases are compressible and usually
must be so treated.

The theory and problems in this module deal mainly with fluids which may be considered
incompressible. A few examples and problems require the use of the simple gas laws which
give the relationship of pressure, volume, and temperature.

The distinction between a solid and a fluid should be noted here:

 A solid in deformed by a shearing stress, the amount of unit deformation up to a certain

point being proportional to the unit stress; a fluid is also deformed by a shearing stress
but at a time rate of deformation which is proportional to the stress.

 If the elastic limit is not exceeded, the application of a given unit shearing stress to a solid
produces a certain unit deformation which is independent of the time of application of
the force, and when the stress is removed the solid returns to its original form. On the
other hand, if a given shearing stress is applied to a fluid, deformation continues to take
place at a uniform rate with time, and when the stress is removed the fluid does not,
through forces contained within itself, return to its original form.
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1.2.3 General Properties of Fluids

Any characteristic of a system is called property. It may either be intensive (mass

independent) or extensive (that depends on size of system). The state of a system is described
by its properties. The number of properties required to fix the state of the system is given by
state postulates. The properties of fluids which are of fundamental importance in the study
of hydraulics are:

Mass Density, 𝜌: Density of a fluid is defined as the ratio of the mass of the fluid to
its volume. The density of gases is dependent on pressure and temperature, while the
density of liquid remains constant.

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑘𝑔
𝜌= = 3 Eq. 1.01
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑚

Unit/Specific Weight, 𝛾: Specific weight is defined as the weight possessed by unit

volume of a fluid. Specific weight is dependent on acceleration due to gravity as it
changes from place to place.

𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑘𝑔 ∙ 𝑚
𝛾= = 𝑜𝑟 𝑁 Eq. 1.02
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑠2

Specific Gravity/Relative Density, 𝑠: The ratio of the unit weight of a fluid to the
unit weight of water at 4℃ (39.2℉), 𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 1000 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3 . The specific gravity of a
substance is a dimensionless quantity.

𝛾𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝜌𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝑠= = Eq. 1.03
𝛾𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

Viscosity, 𝜇: This is also called dynamic viscosity or absolute viscosity. A property

of a fluid which determines the amount of its resistance to the shearing stress. Water is
one of the least viscous of all liquids, whereas glycerin, heavy oil, and molasses are liquids
having comparatively high viscosities. Viscosity is related to the shear stress and velocity
gradient. A common unit of viscosity is poise, which is 1 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒 − 𝑠/𝑐𝑚2 or 0.1 𝑁 ∙
𝑠/𝑚2 𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑎 ∙ 𝑠.

𝜏 𝑁 ⁄𝑚2
𝜇= = = 𝑁 ∙ 𝑠/𝑚2 Eq. 1.04
𝑑𝑉⁄𝑑𝑦 (𝑚/𝑠)/𝑚

where, 𝜏 = shear stress

𝑑𝑉⁄𝑑𝑦 = shear strain rate

Kinematic Viscosity, 𝑣: The ratio of the dynamic viscosity of a fluid to its mass
density.

𝜇 𝑚2
𝑣= = Eq. 1.05
𝜌 𝑠
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Surface Tension, 𝜎: This is the tendency of the surface of a liquid to behave like a
stretched elastic membrane. A phenomenon in which the surface of a liquid, where the
liquid is in contact with a gas, acts as a thin elastic sheet. This term is typically used only
when the liquid surface is in contact with gas (such as the air). If the surface is between
two liquids (such as water and oil), it is called "interface tension."

Surface tension is defined as the ratio of the surface force F to the length d along which
the force acts:

𝐹 𝑁
𝜎= = Eq. 1.06
𝑑 𝑚

If the liquid molecules have greater adhesion than cohesion, then the liquid sticks to the
surface of the container with which it is in contact, resulting in a capillary rise of the liquid
surface; a predominating cohesion, in contrast, causes capillary depression.

The capillary rise or depression ℎ of a liquid in a tube of diameter 𝑑 can be written as,

4𝜎 cos 𝜃
ℎ= Eq. 1.07
𝜌𝑔𝑑

where 𝜃 is the angle of contact between liquid and solid.

Surface tension increases the pressure within a droplet of liquid. The internal pressure 𝑝
balancing the surface tensional force of a small spherical droplet of radius 𝑟 is given by

2𝜎
𝑝= Eq. 1.08
𝑟

1.2.4 Properties of Water

The principal physical properties of water are summarized in Table 1.1. Modulus of
Elasticity and Vapor Pressure are briefly described as follows:

❖ Modulus of Elasticity, 𝐸: For most practical purposes, liquids may be regarded as

incompressible. The bulk modulus of elasticity 𝐸 is given by

∆𝑝
𝐸= Eq. 1.09
∆𝑉⁄𝑉

where Δp is the increase in pressure, which when applied to a volume V results in a

decrease in volume ΔV.

❖ Vapor Pressure, 𝑝𝑣 : Liquid molecules that possess sufficient kinetic energy are
projected out of the main body of a liquid at its free surface and pass into the vapor. The
pressure exerted by this vapor is known as the vapor pressure, pv.
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Table 1.1 Approximate Physical Properties of Water* at Atmospheric Pressure

SAMPLE PROBLEM 1.1 A fluid occupying 3.2 𝑚3 has a mass of 4 𝑀𝑔. Calculate its
density and specific volume.

Solution
Mass = 4 𝑥 106 𝑔 = 4 𝑥 103 𝑘𝑔
4 𝑥 103
𝜌= = 1250 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
3.2
1
Specific Volume = 1250 = 0.0008 𝑚3 /𝑘𝑔
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1.2.5 Properties of Other Fluids

The principal physical properties of other fluids are summarized in Table 1.2.

Table 1.2 Approximate Physical Properties of Common Liquids at Atmospheric Pressure

SAMPLE PROBLEM 1.2 The specific weight of water at ordinary pressure and
3
temperature is 9.81 𝑘𝑁/𝑚 . The specific gravity of mercury is 13.56. Compute the
density of water and the specific weight and density of mercury.

Solution
9.81 𝑘𝑁/𝑚3
𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = = 1.00 𝑀𝑔⁄𝑚3 = 1.00𝑔/𝑚𝐿
9.81 𝑚/𝑠 2
𝛾𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦 = 𝑠𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦 𝛾𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 13.56 (9.81) = 133.0 𝐾𝑁/𝑚3
𝜌𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦 = 𝑠𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦 𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 13.56 (1.00) = 13.56 𝑀𝑔/𝑚3
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SAMPLE PROBLEM 1.3 Weight Density of oil is 8339 𝑁/𝑚3 . Determine its relative
density.

Solution
8339
𝑠= = 0.85
9810

Video Lessons:

Viscosity, Cohesive and Adhesive Forces, Surface Tension, and Capillary Action
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P_jQ1B9UwpU

What is Surface Tension? | Richard Hammond's Invisible Worlds | Earth Lab

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5NCOnr3VSAY

Surface Tension | Fluid Mechanics | JEE Concept | Physics

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IjD5e33FnP0&feature=emb_logo

POST – ASSESSMENT

A. Explain the following thoroughly:

1. Describe how density differs from specific weight.

2. What is specific gravity? How is it related to density?
3. How does the dynamic and kinematic viscosities of liquids vary with temperature?
4. Explain why the viscosity of a liquid decreases while that of a gas increases with an
increase of temperature.
5. What is the capillary effect? What is it caused by? How is it affected by the contact
angle?

B. Calculate the following to identify the property:

6. A reservoir of glycerin has a mass of 1200 𝑘𝑔 and a volume of 0.952 𝑐𝑢. 𝑚. Find the
glycerin’s weight (𝑊), mass density (𝜌), specific weight (𝛾), and specific gravity (𝑠).
7. The weight of a body is 100 𝑙𝑏. Determine (a) its weight in Newtons, (b) its mass in
kilograms, and (c) the rate of acceleration [in both feet per square second and meters
per square second] if a net force of 50 𝑙𝑏 is applied to the body.
8. A quart of SAE oil at 68 degrees Fahrenheit weighs about 1.85 𝑙𝑏. Calculate the oil’s
specific weight, mass density, and specific gravity.
9. If 200 𝑐𝑢. 𝑓𝑡. of oil weighs 10,520 𝑙𝑏, calculate its specific weight, density, and
specific gravity.
 1 | Hydraulics 9

10. Find the height of the free surface if 0.8 𝑐𝑢. 𝑓𝑡. of water is poured into a conical tank
20 𝑖𝑛 high with a base radius of 10 𝑖𝑛. How much additional water is required to fill
the tank?
11. If the tank in problem #10 holds 30.5 𝑘𝑔 of salad oil, what is the density of the oil?
12. A liquid compressed in a cylinder has a volume of 1000 𝑐𝑢. 𝑐𝑚. at
1 𝑀𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 and a volume of 995 𝑐𝑢. 𝑐𝑚. at
2 𝑀𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟. What is its modulus of elasticity (𝐸)?
13. Find the modulus of elasticity of a liquid if a pressure of 150 𝑝𝑠𝑖 is applied to
10 𝑐𝑢. 𝑓𝑡. of the liquid causes a volume reduction of 0.02 𝑐𝑢. 𝑓𝑡.
14. At a depth of 7 𝑘𝑚 in the ocean, the pressure is 71.6 𝑀𝑃𝑎. Assume a specific weight
at the surface of 10.05 𝑘𝑁 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑢. 𝑚. and an average bulk modulus of elasticity of
2.34 𝐺𝑃𝑎 for that pressure range. Find (a) the change in specific volume between the
surface and 7 𝑘𝑚; (b) the specific volume at 7 𝑘𝑚; and (c) the specific weight at 7 𝑘𝑚.
15. SAE 30 oil at 20 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠 𝐶𝑒𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑢𝑠 is sheared between two parallel plates 0.005 𝑖𝑛
apart with the lower plate fixed at the upper plate moving at 13 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑.
Compute the shear stress in the oil.
16. A shaft 70.0 𝑚𝑚 in diameter is being pushed at a speed of 400 𝑚𝑚 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
through a bearing sleeve 70.2 𝑚𝑚 in diameter and 250 𝑚𝑚 long. The clearance,
assumed uniform, is filled with oil at 20 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠 𝐶𝑒𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑢𝑠 with 𝑣 equal to
0.005 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 and 𝑠 equal to 0.9. Find the force exerted by the oil
on the shaft.
17. The surface tensions of mercury and water at 60 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠 𝐶𝑒𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑢𝑠 are
0.47 𝑁 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 and 0.0662 𝑁𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟, respectively. What capillarity-
height change will occur in these two fluids when they are in contact with air in a
glass tube of radius 0.30 𝑚𝑚? Use 𝜃 equal to 130 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠 for mercury, and
0 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠 for water; 𝛾 = 132.3 𝑘𝑁 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑢. 𝑚. for mercury, and 9.650 𝑘𝑁 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑢. 𝑚.
for water.
18. A 1 − 𝑖𝑛 diameter soap bubble has an internal pressure 0.0045 𝑙𝑏 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠
greater than that of the outside atmosphere. Compute the surface tension of the
soap air-interface. Note that a soap bubble has two interfaces with air, an inner and
outer surface of nearly the same radius.
19. An atomizer forms water droplets 45 𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 in diameter. Find the excess
pressure within these droplets for water at 30 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠 𝐶𝑒𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑢𝑠.
20. Distilled water at 10 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠 𝐶𝑒𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑢𝑠 stands in a glass tube of 9.0 𝑚𝑚 in diameter at
a height of 24.0 𝑚𝑚. What is the true static height?

Evaluation Criteria:
Quality/Craftmanship 40%
Creativity/Originality 30%
Effort/Perseverance 20%
Timeliness 10%
Total 100%
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1.3 References

Besavilla, V. (1983). Hydraulics (Revised Edition) with Practical Questions for Computerized
Licensure Examination.

Crowe, C., et.al. (2009). Engineering Fluid Mechanics - 9th edition. John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

King, H.W., Wisler C. and J. Woodburn. (1948). Hydraulics. John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

Marriott, M. (2016). Nalluri and Featherstone’s Civil Engineering Hydraulics: Essential

Theory with Worked Examples – 6th ed. John Wiley and Sons, Ltd.

McGraw Hill Access Engineering.

https://www.accessengineeringlibrary.com/content/book/9780070471788/back-
matter/appendix4

Woodford, C. (2020). Hydraulics.

[Online] https://www.explainthatstuff.com/hydraulics.html

1.4 Acknowledgment

The images, tables, figures, and information contained in this module were taken from the
references cited above.
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