Prepared By:

Dr. Reza Goldaran

Topics

I - Viscous Flow in Pipes

II - Open Channel Flow
INTRODUCTION
Mechanics: The oldest physical science that deals with both
stationary and moving bodies under the influence of forces.

Statics: The branch of mechanics that deals with bodies at rest.

Dynamics: The branch that deals with bodies in motion.

Fluid mechanics: The science that deals with the behavior of fluids
at rest (fluid statics) or in motion (fluid dynamics), and the interaction
of fluids with solids or other fluids at the boundaries.

Fluid dynamics: Fluid mechanics is also referred to as fluid

dynamics by considering fluids at rest as a special case of motion
with zero velocity. Fluid mechanics deals
with liquids and gases
in motion or at rest.
Hydrodynamics: The study of the motion of fluids that can be approximated as
incompressible (such as liquids, especially water, and gases at low speeds).

Hydraulics: A subcategory of hydrodynamics, which deals with liquid flows in

pipes and open channels.

Gas dynamics: Deals with the flow of fluids that undergo significant density
changes, such as the flow of gases through nozzles at high speeds.

Aerodynamics: Deals with the flow of gases (especially air) over bodies such
as aircraft, rockets, and automobiles at high or low speeds.

Meteorology, oceanography, and hydrology: Deal with naturally occurring

flows.
Stress: Force per unit area.

Normal stress: The normal component of a force

acting on a surface per unit area.

Shear stress: The tangential component of a

force acting on a surface per unit area.

Pressure: The normal stress in a fluid at rest.

The normal stress and shear stress at the surface of a fluid element.

Zero shear stress: A fluid at rest is at a state of For fluids at rest, the shear stress is zero and pressure is the only
normal stress.
zero shear stress.
Phase of Matter
Solid: The molecules in a solid are arranged in a pattern that is repeated throughout.
Liquid: In liquids molecules can rotate and translate freely.
Gas: In the gas phase, the molecules are far apart from each other, and molecular ordering is nonexistent.

Intermolecular bonds are strongest in solids and weakest in gases.

The arrangement of atoms in different phases:

(a) Molecules are at relatively fixed positions in a solid,
(b) Groups of molecules move about each other in the liquid phase,
(c) Individual molecules move about at random in the gas phase.
Definition of a Fluid
A fluid is a substance that deforms continuously under the application of a shear (tangential) stress no matter
how small the shear stress may be.
Since the fluid motion continues under the application of a shear stress, we can also define a fluid as:
Any substance that cannot sustain a shear stress when at rest.

Fluid Forms
In a liquid, groups of molecules can move relative to each other, but the volume
remains relatively constant because of the strong cohesive forces between the
molecules.
As a result, a liquid takes the shape of the container it is in.
It forms a free surface in a larger container in a gravitational field.

A gas expands until it encounters the walls of the container and fills the entire
available space. This is because the gas molecules are widely spaced, and the
Unlike a liquid, a gas does not form
cohesive forces between them are very small. a free surface, and it expands to fill
Unlike liquids, a gas in an open container cannot form a free surface. the entire available space.
Solid vs Fluid

Per Fig. 1.1. if we place a specimen of either substance between two plates (Fig. 1.1a) and
then apply a shearing force F, each will initially deform (Fig. 1.1b); however, whereas a solid
will then be at rest (assuming the force is not large enough to go beyond its elastic limit), a
fluid will continue to deform (Fig. 1.1c, Fig. 1.1d, etc.) as long as the force is applied.

Fig. 1.1 Difference in behavior of a solid and a fluid due to a shear force.
 The amount of deformation of the solid depends on the solid’s modulus of rigidity G.

 The rate of deformation of the fluid depends on the fluid’s viscosity μ.

 We refer to solids as being elastic and fluids as being viscous.

 More informally, we say that solids exhibit “springiness.” On the other hand, fluids
exhibit friction effects.

 A number of substances exhibit both springiness and friction; they are viscoelastic.
Many biological tissues are viscoelastic. Note that the system of springs and shock
absorbers comprising the car suspension is also viscoelastic, although the individual
components are not.
PRESSURE SCALE

In fluid mechanics pressure results from a normal compressive force acting on an area.

The pressure p is defined as:

ΔF is the incremental normal

compressive force acting on the
incremental area Δ A.

• The metric units to be used on pressure are newtons per square meter (N/m2) or pascal (Pa).
• Since the pascal is a very small unit of pressure, it is more conventional to express pressure in units of
kilopascal (kPa).
• For example, standard atmospheric pressure at sea level is 101.3 kPa.
• The English units for pressure are pounds per square inch (psi) or pounds per square foot (psf).
• Atmospheric pressure is often expressed as inches of mercury or feet of water, as shown in Fig. below;
• Such a column of fluid creates the pressure at the bottom of the column, providing the column is open to
atmospheric pressure at the top.
 Gage pressure
and
Absolute pressure

The absolute pressure reaches zero when an ideal vacuum is achieved, that is, when no
molecules are left in a space; consequently, a negative absolute pressure is an impossibility.

A second scale is defined by measuring pressures relative to the local atmospheric

pressure. This pressure is called gage pressure.
 conversion from gage pressure to absolute pressure

• Note that the atmospheric pressure in above Eq. is the local atmospheric pressure,
which may change with time.
• However, if the local atmospheric pressure is not given, we use the value given
for a particular elevation, as given in Table B.3, and assume zero
elevation if the elevation is unknown.
• The gage pressure is negative whenever the absolute pressure is less than
atmospheric pressure; it may then be called a vacuum.
• Here the word “absolute” will generally follow the pressure value if the pressure
is given as an absolute pressure (e.g., p = 50 kPa absolute). If it were stated as
p = 50 kPa, the pressure would be taken as a gage pressure, except that
atmospheric pressure is always an absolute pressure. Most often in fluid
mechanics gage pressure is used.
Reference will often be made to
“standard atmospheric conditions” or
“standard temperature and pressure.”
This refers to sea-level conditions at
40° latitude, which are taken to be
101.3 kPa (14.7 psi) for pressure and
15°C (59°F) for temperature.

Actually, The standard pressure is

usually taken as 100 kPa, sufficiently
accurate for engineering calculations.
Density and Specific Weight
Fluid density is defined as mass per unit volume. A fluid property directly related to density is the
specific weight γ or weight per unit volume.

where g is the local gravity. The units of specific weight are N/m3 (lb/ft3). For water we use the nominal
value of 9800 N/m3 (62.4 lb/ft3).
Specific gravity S: The ratio of the density of a substance to the density of water at a reference
temperature of 4°C

Density, Specific Weight, and Specific Gravity of Air and Water at Standard
Conditions
Viscosity

Viscosity can be thought of as the internal stickiness of a fluid or internal frictional force between adjacent
layers of fluid that are in relative motion. It is one of the properties that influences the power needed to move an
airfoil through the atmosphere.

It accounts for the energy losses associated with the transport of fluids in ducts, channels, and pipes.

The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to deformation at a given rate. For liquids, it corresponds to
the informal concept of "thickness": for example, oil has a higher viscosity than water.

The rate of deformation of a fluid is directly linked to the

viscosity of the fluid. For a given stress, a highly viscous fluid
deforms at a slower rate than a fluid with a low viscosity.

The viscosity is very dependent on temperature in liquids in

which cohesive forces play a dominant role.

Note that the viscosity of a liquid decreases with increased

temperature.
Consider the flow of Fig. below in which the fluid particles move in the x-direction at different speeds, so that
particle velocities u vary with the y coordinate. Two particle positions are shown at different times; observe how
the particles move relative to one another. For such a simple flow field, in which u u(y), we can define the
viscosity of the fluid by the relationship:
µ is the absolute or dynamic viscosity
ԏ is the shear stress
u is the velocity in the x-direction.

Relative movement of two fluid particles in the presence of shear stresses

The units of ԏ are N/m2 or Pa (lb/ft2), and of µ are Ns/m2 (lb-sec/ft2).The quantity du/dy is a velocity gradient and can
be interpreted as a strain rate.
Consider the behavior of a fluid element between the two infinite plates shown in Fig. 2.9a. The rectangular fluid
element is initially at rest at time t. Let us now suppose a constant rightward force δFx is applied to the upper plate
so that it is dragged across the fluid at constant velocity δu. The relative shearing action of the infinite plates
produces a shear stress, τyx, which acts on the fluid element and is given by:

&
Newtonian & non-Newtonian fluids

Newtonian fluid:
If the shear stress of a fluid is directly proportional to the velocity gradient the fluid is said to be a Newtonian fluid.
Many common fluids, such as air, water, and oil, are Newtonian.

Non-Newtonian fluids:
Non-Newtonian fluids, with shear stress versus strain rate relationships as shown in Fig. above, often have a
complex molecular composition.

• Dilatants (quicksand, slurries) become more resistant to motion as the strain rate increases, and pseudoplastics
(paint and catsup) become less resistant to motion with increased strain rate.
• Ideal plastics (or Bingham fluids) require a minimum shear stress to cause motion.
No-slip condition:
An extremely important effect of viscosity is to cause the fluid to adhere to the surface; this is known as no-slip condition.

This was assumed in the motion of parallel plate above. The velocity of the fluid at the moving plate was taken to be U,
and the velocity of the fluid at the stationary plate was set equal to zero.

A fluid flowing over a stationary surface comes to a complete

stop at the surface because of the no-slip condition.

Boundary layer: The flow region adjacent to the wall in which the
viscous effects (and thus the velocity gradients) are significant.

kinematic viscosity
Since the viscosity is often divided by the density in the derivation of equations, it has become useful and customary to
define kinematic viscosity to be:
The unit of v is m2/s (ft2/sec)
Variation of Pressure with Depth
Hydrostatic Pressure Difference Between Two Points
Pascal’s Law
Pressure Measurement and Manometer
Or
Measuring Pressure Drops
Barometer
Introduction to Fluids in Motion
First of all, we discuss the description of physical quantities as a function of space and time coordinates.
The second topic in this section introduces the different flow lines that are useful in our objective of
describing a fluid flow.
Finally, the mathematical description of motion is presented.

Lagrangian and Eulerian Descriptions of Motion

Lagrangian Descriptions of Motion

In this viewpoint, where the attention is focused on individual particles, motion is
observed as a function of time.
The position, velocity, and acceleration of each particle are listed as s(x0, y0, z0, t),
V(x0, y0, z0, t), and a(x0, y0, z0, t), and quantities of interest can be calculated. The point
(x0, y0, z0) locates the starting point of each particle.
In the Lagrangian description many particles can be followed and their influence on
one another noted. This becomes, however, a difficult task as the number of particles
becomes extremely large in even the simplest fluid flow.
Eulerian Descriptions of Motion

An alternative to following each fluid particle separately, is to identify points in space

and then observe the velocity of particles passing each point.
We can observe the rate of change of velocity as the particles pass each point, that is,
əV/əx, əV/əy, and əV/əz, and we can observe if the velocity is changing with time at each
particular point, that is, əV/ət.
In this Eulerian description, the flow properties, such as velocity, are functions of both
space and time.
In Cartesian coordinates the velocity is expressed as V = V(x, y, z, t). The region of flow
that is being considered is called a flow field.

An example may clarify these two ways of describing motion.

An engineering firm is hired to make recommendations that would improve the traffic flow in a large city. The
engineering firm has two alternatives:
Hire college students to travel in automobiles throughout the city recording the appropriate observations (the
Lagrangian approach),
or hire college students to stand at the intersections and record the required information (the Eulerian approach).
A correct interpretation of each set of data would lead to the same set of recommendations, that is, the same solution.
In an introductory course in fluids, however, the Eulerian description is used exclusively since the physical laws
using the Eulerian description are easier to apply to actual situations.
Yet, there are examples where a Lagrangian description is needed, such as drifting buoys used to study ocean
currents.
CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID FLOWS

Steady and Unsteady Flow

If the quantities of interest do not depend on time, that is, V = V(x, y, z), the flow is
said to be a steady flow.
Most of the flows of interest in this introductory textbook are steady flows.
For a steady flow, all flow quantities at a particular point are independent of time.

The velocity and pressure vary with time as a particular fluid particle progresses
along its path in a flow, even in a steady flow.
In a steady flow, however, properties do not vary with time at a fixed point.
Viscous versus Inviscid Regions of Flow

Viscous flows: Flows in which the frictional effects are significant.

Inviscid flow regions: In many flows of practical interest, there are regions (typically regions not close to
solid surfaces) where viscous forces are negligibly small compared to inertial or pressure forces.

The flow of an originally uniform fluid stream over a flat

plate, and the regions of viscous flow (next to the plate
on both sides) and inviscid flow (away from the plate).

40
Internal versus External Flow

External flow: The flow of an unbounded fluid over a surface such as a plate, a wire, or a pipe.
Internal flow: The flow in a pipe or duct if the fluid is completely bounded by solid surfaces.

• Water flow in a pipe is internal flow, and airflow over

a ball is external flow .
• The flow of liquids in a duct is called open-channel
flow if the duct is only partially filled with the liquid
and there is a free surface.

External flow over a tennis ball, and the

turbulent wake region behind
41
 One-, Two-, and Three-Dimensional Flows Natural (or Unforced)
vs
• A flow field is best characterized by its velocity distribution. Forced Flow
• A flow is said to be one-, two-, or three-dimensional if the flow velocity varies in
one, two, or three dimensions, respectively. Term one, two or three dimensional Forced flow: A fluid is forced
flow refers to the number of space coordinated required to describe a flow. to flow over a surface or in a
pipe by external means such
• However, the variation of velocity in certain directions can be small relative to the as a pump or a fan.
variation in other directions and can be ignored.

Natural flow: Fluid motion is

The development of the velocity
profile in a circular pipe
flow between parallel plates
due to natural means such
as the buoyancy effect,
which manifests itself as the
rise of warmer (and thus
lighter) fluid and the fall of
cooler (and thus denser)
fluid.

V = V(r, z) and thus the flow is two-dimensional in the entrance region, and becomes one-dimensional downstream when the
velocity profile fully develops and remains unchanged in the flow direction, V = V(r).
There are many engineering problems
in fluid mechanics in which a flow
field is simplified to a uniform flow:
the velocity, and other fluid properties,
are constant over the area. (below Fig.)

Uniform velocity profiles

Pathlines, Streaklines, and Streamlines
Three different lines help us in describing a flow field.

Pathline
A pathline is the locus of points traversed by a given particle as it travels in a field of flow; the
pathline provides us with a “history” of the particle’s locations.

Pathlines underneath a wave in a tank of water

Streakline
A streakline is defined as an instantaneous line whose points are occupied by all particles
originating from some specified point in the flow field.
Streaklines tell us where the particles are “right now.”
A photograph of a streakline would be a snapshot of the set of illuminated particles that passed a
certain point.

Streaklines in the unsteady flow around a cylinder

 Streamline

A streamline is a line in the flow possessing the following property: the velocity vector of
each particle occupying a point on the streamline is tangent to the streamline. This is shown
graphically in Fig. below.
An equation that expresses that the velocity vector is tangent to a streamline is

A photograph of a streamline cannot be made

directly. For a general unsteady flow the
streamlines can be inferred from photographs of Streamline in a flow field
short pathlines of a large number of particles.
streamtube
A streamtube is a tube whose walls are streamlines. Since the velocity is tangent to a streamline, no
fluid can cross the walls of a streamtube.

The streamtube is of particular interest in fluid mechanics. A pipe is a streamtube since its walls
are streamlines; an open channel is a streamtube since no fluid crosses the walls of the channel.

We often sketch a streamtube with a small cross section in the interior of a flow for demonstration
purposes.

In a steady flow, pathlines, streaklines, and streamlines are all coincident.

Acceleration
Example
Pipe Flow
- General Characteristics of Pipe Flow
- Fully Developed Laminar Flow
- Fully Developed Turbulent Flow
- Dimensional Analysis of Pipe Flow
- Pipe Flow Examples
- Flowrate Measurement
Introduction
Pipe System
Pipe Flow vs Open Channel Flow
General Characteristics of pipe Flow

• Laminar vs. Turbulent

• Entrance Region vs. Fully Developed Flow

Laminar or Turbulent Flow
Time Dependence of Fluid Velocity at a Point
Indication of Laminar or Turbulent Flow
Entrance Region and Fully Developed Flow
Pressure Distribution along Pipe
Fully Developed Laminar Flow

There are numerous ways to derive important

results pertaining to fully developed laminar flow:

- From F=ma applied directly to a fluid element.

- From the Navier-Stokes equations of motion
- From dimensional analysis methods
From F = ma
Example - Laminar Pipe Flow
From the Navier-Stokes Equations
axial component: x
From Dimensional Analysis
Energy Consideration
Example - Laminar Pipe Flow Properties
Fully Developed Turbulent Flow
Transition from Laminar to Turbulent Flow in a Pipe
Energy Considerations 1/7 (1-6: option)
Energy Considerations 2/7
Energy Considerations 3/7
Energy Considerations 4/7
Energy Considerations 5/7
Energy Considerations 6/7
Energy Considerations 7/7
Major Losses: Friction Factor
Major Losses: Laminar Flow
Major Losses: Turbulent Flow
Roughness for Pipes
Moody chart
About Moody Chart
Major Losses: Turbulent Flow
Example - Comparison of Laminar or Turbulent Pressure Drop

Air under standard conditions flows through a 4.0-mm-diameter drawn tubing with an
average velocity of V = 50 {m}/{s}m/s. For such conditions the flow would normally be
turbulent. However, if precautions are taken to eliminate disturbances to the flow (the
entrance to the tube is very smooth, the air is dust-free, the tube does not vibrate, etc.),
it may be possible to maintain laminar flow.
FIND :
(a) Determine the pressure drop in a 0.1-m section of the tube if the flow is laminar.
(b) Repeat the calculations if the flow is turbulent.
Minor Losses

• Most pipe systems consist of considerably more

than straight pipes. These additional components
(valves, bends, tees, and the like) add to the
overall head loss of the system.

• Such losses are termed MINOR LOSS. But, it

is not minor at all and it may be larger than the
major losses.

The flow pattern through a valve

• The theoretical analysis to predict the details of flow pattern (through these additional
components) is not, as yet, possible.

• The head loss information for essentially all components is given in dimensionless
form and based on experimental data. The most common method used to determine
these head losses or pressure drops is to specify the loss coefficient, KL.
• For many practical applications the Reynolds number is large enough so that the flow
through the component is dominated by inertial effects, with viscous effects being of
secondary importance.
• In a flow that is dominated by inertia effects rather than viscous effects, it is usually
found that pressure drops and head losses correlate directly with the dynamic
pressure.
• This is the reason why the friction factor for very large Reynolds number fully
developed pipe flow is, independent of the Reynolds number.
• This is true for flow through pipe components.
• Thus, in most cases of practical interest the loss coefficients for components are a
function of geometry only,
Entrance flow condition and loss coefficient
• A vena contract region may result because the
fluid cannot turn a sharp right-angle corner. The
flow is said to separate from the sharp corner.
• The maximum velocity at section (2) is greater
than that in the pipe section (3), and the pressure
there is lower.
• If this high speed fluid could slow down
efficiently, the kinetic energy could be
converted into pressure.

Flow pattern and pressure distribution for a sharp edge entrance

Exit flow condition and loss coefficient
Loss coefficient for sudden contraction, expansion,typical conical diffuser
Character of the flow in bend and the associated loss coefficient
Loss Coefficients for Pipe Components
Example - Minor Loss
Example - Minor Loss
Noncircular Ducts
Friction Factor for Laminar Flow in Noncircular Ducts
Example - Noncircular Duct

Solution:
Example - Noncircular Duct
Hydraulic and Energy Grade Lines
Pipe Flow Examples
Three types of problems
encountered in pipe flow
PIPING NETWORKS AND PUMP SELECTION

Series Pipes

For pipes in series, the flow rate is the same in

each pipe, and the total head loss is the sum of
the head losses in the individual pipes.
Parallel Pipes

For pipes in parallel, the head loss is

the same in each pipe, and the total
flow rate is the sum of the flow rates
in individual pipes.

Then the ratio of the average velocities and the flow rates in the two parallel pipes become
• The analysis of piping networks, no matter how complex they are, is based on two simple principles:
Piping Systems with Pumps and Turbines
When a piping system involves a pump and/or turbine, the
steady-flow energy equation on a unit-mass basis is expressed
as:

or in terms of heads as