1

8CHAPTER 3
FLUID STATICS

3.1 Introduction
In the previous chapter it was noted that the hydrostatic pressure parts of fluid static.
In this chapter we shall develop equations to calculate the magnitude and location of
forces acting on submerged surfaces. We shall also examine problems involving
ability of floating bodies. Such analysis of fluid helps in the design of dams, gates,
ships and submarines.
In this chapter, the submerged surfaces are divided into the following types; a)
straight horizontal and vertical surfaces, b) straight inclined surfaces, and c) curved
surfaces.

The analysis of hydrostatic force on submerged surfaces assumes the following

conditions.
1. Force is always perpendicular to the surface since there is no shear
stress for fluids at rest.
2. Pressure varies linearly with depth for incompressible fluid.
3. The resultant fluid force passes through the point called the center of
pressure

3.2 Horizontal and vertical surface

Any given depth h, the resultant fluid force F R on the horizontal and vertical
surfaces may be represented as shown in Figure 3.1.

FR
h h
FR

P=ρgh

Figure 3.1
 2

Magnitude of the resultant force F R at the bottom of the tank, Figure 3.1 is given
by

F R =PA (3.1)

where A is the area of the surface upon which the pressure is acting. For the
vertical
Surface. Figure 5.8(b), we have
1
F R = PA
2 (3.2)

3.3 Inclined Surface

The surface tilted at an angle θ from the horizontal is shown in Figure 3.2. The
pressure variation and hence the resultant hydrostatic force FR, on the surface can be
presented as shown in Figure 3.2.

yc pc hc
FR hp
yp

C
A XC
P
XP
y

Figure 3.2
 3

Magnitude FR can be written as

F R=PC A (3.3)

where PC is a pressure at the centroid surface (point C) and is written as:

PC =Po +ρ ghC (3.4)

This pressure is equivalent to the average pressure on the surface.

we can see that
a) the magnitude of the force is independent of the angle θ,
b) it is perpendicular to the surface, and
c) it passes through the point of application called the center of pressure
(point P).

In many cases, the pressure at point O is the atmospheric pressure and may be
ignored in the analysis. This simplifies equation (3.4) to

PC =ρ ghC (3.5)

Noticed that when θ = 90°, the surface becomes vertical and when θ = 0°, the
surface becomes horizontal.

3.3.1 Center of Pressure

Next we need to determine the line of action of the resultant force FR distance yP and
hence its location below the free surface, hp. It is found that T action yP is given by

IX
yP =
Ay C (3.6)
 4

where I X is the moment of inertia of the area with respect to the x axis. Using
2
parallel axis I X = Ī X + Ay C , equation (3.6) can be rewritten as

Ī X
yP = yC+
AyC (3.7)

where Ī X is the moment of inertia of the area with respect to the centroid axis.

Ī X commonly used shapes is given in Figure 3.3. Observe that the center pressure

P below the centroid C of the surface since

Ī X / Ay C >0 ,

Expressing yP= hP/sinθ and yC= hC/sinθ, we obtain from equation 3.7

Ī
h P=hC +
AhC

Where Ī = Ī X sin 2 θ . In some textbooks, the location of the centroid of the

submerge surface from the fluid free surface,

hC is denoted as h̄ and y as ȳ .
C

Figure 3.3 shows the centroid ȳ for the simple shape objects and Figure 3.4 shows

the second moment of area

Ī X for the simple shapes.
5
 6

Figure 3.3

Note:
1. First Moment of Area
It is used to determine the centroid for a complex shape. It can be calculated using
the following method:
 7

A2
A3
= -
A1

x
a b

A 1 x= A2 a− A 3 b
Where A1, A2, and A3 are the areas and x, a, and b are the centroid for the
above shapes respectively.

2. Axial Moment of Inertia of an Area

The axial moment of inertia of an area is the summation of the axial moments
of inertia of the elements.

y x dA

I x =∫ y 2 dA

I y=∫ x 2 dA

3. Parallel Axis Theorem

The parallel axis theorem states that the axial moment of inertia of an area
about any axis equals the axial moment of inertia of the area about a parallel
axis through the centroid of the area plus the product of the area and the
square of the distance between the two parallel axes.
 8

y y’

x’

x
0

I x = Ī x + Am 2
'

2
I y= Ī y' + An

3.4 Moment of a Force

The resultant force FR and its location yP or hP, are determined, thus the calculation of
the moment needed to overcome the resulting moment due to this force about certain
point. Consider a force F acting perpendicular to the body at point B as shown in
Figure 3.4.

M=Fd
F
d
B =
C A C A

Figure 3.4

This force tends to rotate the body about point A in a counter-clockwise direction.
The tendency of a force to rotate the body is called the moment of a force about that
point. The magnitude of this moment about point A is given by:

M A=Fd
 9

where d is the perpendicular distance from point A to the point of application of the
force. The direction of the moment is indicated using either clockwise or counter-
clockwise. In this case, MA is in the counter-clockwise direction Figure 3.4.

Example 3.1:
Consider a rectangular gate AB hinged along A to support the water pressure as
shown in Figure E3.1. Determine:

(a) The resultant hydrostatic force exerted on the gate AB

(b) The center of pressure
(c) The force acting on the stopper at B

The gate width is 3m.

h = 10 m
l =6 m

Water A
γ=9810N/m 3

Figure E3.1
Solution:

(a) Resultant force

FR = γ hC A (1)

where A= 6(3) = 18m2 and hC = 4 + 3 = 7m

From equation (1);

 10

FR = 9810 (7) (18) = 1.24MN

(b) Location of center of pressure

Ī
h P=hC +
AhC

1
Ī= Ī X sin 2 θ= (3 )(6 )3 sin2 ( 90° )=54 m4
where 12

54
h P=7+ =7 . 43 m
(18 )(7)

(c) The force acting at the stopper B

Taking moment at A,

F B ×l=F R ×(h P −4 )

1. 24×3 . 43
F B= =0 .71 MN
6

Example 3.2:
Determine the friction coefficient required to hold the dam from moving as shown in
Figure E1.2. The normal force of dam is 50MN/m.

Water

10m

60°
F=mN

Figure E1.2
 11

Solution:
Hydrostatic force per unit width acting on the dam surface:
∘
F=γ h̄ A=9810(5)(10) /sin60 =424.8 kN /m
For force acts along horizontal component:

F H =F cos 30∘=424 . 8×cos 30∘=367 . 9 kN /m

Therefore, the friction factor required to hold the dam;

367 . 9×10−3
μ= =0 . 0074
50

3.5 Curved Surface

For the curved surface as shown in Figure 3.5, the pressure variation and hence the
resultant hydrostatic force FR on the surface can be represented as shown.

F1

W
FR D
A A
Fh G
P F2
P

B FR B
FV

Figure 3.5

Let Fh = horizontal force exerted on the fluid mass

Fv = vertical force exerted on the fluid mass
F1 = resultant force of the fluid exerted on the surface AD
F2 = resultant force of the fluid exerted on the surface BD
 12

W = the weight of the enclosed volume supported by the curved AB and

that W = ρgV where V is volume of the enclosed liquid block, and it passes
through the centroid of this volume.

The force balances under static equilibrium and obtain the following equations:

Fh =F 2

F v=F 1 +W

The magnitude of the total resultant fluid force acting on the curved surface is given
by:

F R =√ F 2h +F 2v

Example 3.3:
A water channel with a 3m long quarter-circular section AB of radius 2.4m is
designed as shown in Figure E3.3. Determine the total resultant force exerted by
water on section AB. Given γair= 9.81kN/m3.

WATER
3.6 m

2.4 m

Figure E3.3

Solution:

Total resultant force is given by

 13

F R =√ F 2h +F 2v

where Fv= F1 + W and Fh= F2

For each force components;

F1 =γhC A

where A= 2.4(3) = 7.2m2 and hC= 3.6m

∴ F 1 =9810(3 .6 )(7 . 2)=254 . 3 kN

W= ρ gV =γV

1 1
V = πr 2 l= π (2. 4 )2 (3)=13. 57 m3
Where 4 2
∴W =9810(13 . 57)=133. 2 kN

F2 =γhC A

Where A= 2.4(3) = 7.2m3 and hC= 3.6 + 1.2 = 4.8m

∴ F 2 =9810(4 .8 )(7 .2 )=339 kN

Therefore, Fv= 254.3 + 133.2 = 387.4kN

Fh= F2= 339kN

And
FR= (387.42 + 3392)1/2 = 514.8kN
 14

Example 3.4
Determine the force per unit width P, required to hold the gate as shown in Figure
E3.4.

P
2m 0.5m

2m
Water

Hinge

Figure E3.4
Solution:
Hydrostatic force acting on the control volume;
F H =γ h̄ A=9810(1)(2)=19. 62 kN /m

By taking moment at hinge:

2×19 . 62
P= =15. 7 kN /m
2. 5

3.6 Buoyancy, Floatation and Stability

When a body is completely submerged or floating in a fluid, the resultant fluid
force acting in an upward direction on the body is called the buoyancy force. This
force tends to lift the body upward and its existence is due to the fact that (1) the
fluid pressure increases with depth, and (2) the pressure force acting from below is
larger than the pressure force acting from above.

3.6.1 Buoyancy and Floatation

Consider a body submerged completely in a fluid as shown in Figure 3.6.
The resultant force on the bottom surface of the body is greater than the
resultant force on the top surface of the body.
 15

h1 Ftop=γ fh1A
h2

FB
Fbottom=γ fh2A

Figure 3.6 Buoyancy force acting on a submerged body

The difference between these two forces is the buoyant force which gives
the net upward force. This buoyant force will pass through the point called
center of buoyancy or the centroid of the displaced volume, C B which
happened to be at the same point as the center of gravity of the body, G in
the case of a completely submerged body. Writing force balance on the
body, we have

F B =F bottom−Ftop =γ f h2 A−γ f h1 A=γ f hA

However, the term hA is basically the volume of the fluid body (or volume
of the displaced fluid by the body). Expressing this volume as V = hA, we
may write the equation above as

F B=γ f V

where V is volume of the displaced fluid. Thus, we conclude that the

buoyant force acting on the body is equal to the weight of the fluid
displaced by the body and therefore, proportional to the density of the fluid.

In the case of a floating body, Figure 3.7, the weight of the entire body must
be equal to the buoyant force, which is the weight of the fluid whose volume
is equal to the volume of the submerged portion of the floating body.
 16

mg Vtotal
mg

Vsub
FB FB
FB=mg
FB
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 3.7 Buoyancy force acting on a floating body

Thus, for a floating body in static equilibrium, we may write

F B =W or
γ f V sub =γ body V total

where
V total = total volume of the body or volume of the entire body

V sub = volume of the submerged, portion of the body, which is equal to

the
volume of the displaced fluid (Figure 3.7(c))

Rewriting the above equation as

V sub γ body ρbody
= =
V total γ f ρf

We observe that the body is completely submerged when the density ratio is
equal to 1 that is when the density of the body is equal to the fluid density.
We can conclude that a body immersed in a fluid will

(1) Rise to the surface of the fluid and float when the density of the body
is less than the fluid density,

(2) Remain at rest at any point in the fluid when its density is equal to the
fluid density, and

(3) Sink to the bottom when the density of the body is greater than the
fluid density.
 17

Ρbody < Ρf : floating

Ρbody = Ρf : suspended

Ρbody > Ρf : sinking

Figure 3.8 Situations of a body immersed in a fluid: float, remain at rest, or

sink depending on the density of the body relative to the fluid density

Example 3.5

A cuboids has the size of b×h×w is floating in the water (γair= 9.81kN/m3) as
shown in Figure E3.5. Determine the portion of body that above the water
surface, a if γJasad= 3.5kN/m3, b= 6m, h= 8m dan w= 5m.

a
h

w water

Figure E3.5
Solution:
V sub =(h−a ) b w
V total =h b w

From the relationship,

V sub γ body ρbody
= =
V total γf ρf
 18

γ body 3500
a=h(1−
γf (
)=8 1−
9800 )
a = 5.14m

Note: Observe that from equation above, the portion above the water
surface will be less if the density of the body is higher

Example 3.6
Balloon has a mass of 20kg and the diameter of 10m is filled with the helium
gas (Figure E3.6). The density of helium gas is 0.81kg/m3. Determine the
acceleration of the balloon after it releases from the ground (Take air density
as 1.2kg/m3).

Helium

10m

Figure E3.6
Solution:
The forces in equilibrium position as in equation below:

F B −mT g=mT a

γ air V −(20+ρ He V )g 4
a= V = π×5 3=523 . 6 m 3
(20+ ρHe V ) , where 3

Thus, the acceleration is

 19

(1. 2×9 . 81)(523 . 6)−(20+0 . 81×523 . 6)×9 . 81

a= =4 . 07 m/s 2
(20+0 .81×523. 6 )

3.6.2 Stability of Floating and Immersed Bodies

Stability is an important issue for a floating and immersed body such as in
the design of a ship, submarine and barge (Figure 3.9).

Figure 3.9 A barge used for transportation at Kuala Kurau

In the vertical direction under static equilibrium, the weight and the buoyant
force on a floating or immersed body will balance each other, and such body
is said to be vertically stable (vertical stability).

For the rotational stability, the condition depends upon the relative location
of the center of gravity G of the body and the center of buoyancy C B, Figure
3.10. A floating or immersed body is stable if the point G is below point C B,
Figure 3.9(a). Under this condition, the body will return to its original stable
position due to the restoring moment or couple produced by the body.
 20

FB FB w
CB G
G CB CB
G
w FB
w

(a) stable (b) neutral (c) unstable

FB w

FB Overturning
w Restoring Moment
Moment

(d) Restoring Couple (e) Overturning Couple

Figure 3.10 Stability of an immersed body (a) stable with restoring couple
as shown in (d), (b) neutral, and (c) unstable with overturning
couple as shown in (e).

However, a floating body will still be stable even if G is above CB. See
Figure 3.11. This is because the body will still produce the restoring moment
since the centroid of the displaced volume is now shifted to the side to point
CB. The lines of action of the buoyancy force before and after rotation will
meet at the point called the meta-center CM.
The distance between G and C M is called the metacentric height hM and is
used as a measure of stability for a floating body. The larger it is, the more
stable the floating body will be. Note that the floating body is unstable if the
point CM is below point G.
CM

W W

G
G

CB CB

FB Restoring
Couple

Figure 3.11 Stability of an immersed body

To determine whether the floating body is stable or not is given by the

following equations:
 21

Ī
C M −C B =
V

and for the body is in stable condition when it rotate at certain angle resulting
from the reversed moment, it must has the following conditions:

h M =C M −CG > 0 Stable

h M =C M −CG =0 Neutral
h M =C M −CG < 0 Unstable

Example E3.7:
The shifting of a portion of cargo of mass 25000kg, through a distance of 6m
at right angles to the vertical plane containing the longitudinal axis of a vessel,
causes it to heel through an angle of 5. The displacement of the vessel is 5000
metric tons and the value of second moment of area is 5840m4. The density of
seawater is 1025kg/m3. Determine the metacentric height and the height of the
centre of gravity of the vessel above the centre of buoyancy.

Solution:

CM
CM
6m
5°

CG 2500g
CG x
CB
CB

Force diagram
Let the horizontal distance between CG and CB is x,

By taking moment at CG:

−2500(9 .81)(6 )+5000×103 ×x (9 . 81)=0 ; where FB = mT×g

 22

x=0 . 03 m
3
5000×10
V= =4878 m3
Volume of displacement, 1025

Ī 5840
C M −C B = = =1 . 2m
And, V 4878

x 0 . 03
hM= ∘= =0 .344 m
Thus, metacentric height, sin 5 sin 5∘

And the vertical distance between CG and CB is

x 0 .03
(C M −C B )− ∘ =1 .2− =0 . 857 m
tan 5 tan 5∘

3.7 Liquids in Relative Equilibrium

If a vessel containing a liquid is at rest or moving with constant velocity the liquid is
not affected by the motion of the container, but if the container is given continuously
acceleration this will be imparted to the liquid which will take up a new position and
come to rest with respect to its container and come to rest relative to the vessel. The
liquid is in relative equilibrium and is at rest with respect to its container. There is no
relative motion of the particles of the fluid and therefore no shear stress. Fluid
pressure is everywhere normal to the surface on which it acts.

3.7.1 Horizontal Acceleration

Consider a particle O of mass m on the free surface of the liquid as in Figure
3.11.

R
θ

F
O a
θ
W

A C B
 23

Figure 3.12

Since the particle is at rest relative to the tank, it will have the same
acceleration a, and will be subjected to an accelerating force, F

W
F=ma= a
g

where W= weight of particles.

The accelerating force, F is the resultant of the weight W of the particle acting
vertically downward and the pressure force, R acting normal to the free
surface due to surrounding fluid.

For equilibrium F= W tan, where  is the angle of the free surface to the
horizontal.
Thus,
a
tan θ=
g

and is constant for all points on the surface.

3.7.2 Vertical Acceleration

As the acceleration is vertical the free surface will remain horizontal. Consider
a vertical prism of height h (Figure 3.13) extending from the free surface to x
and let the pressure intensity at x be P.

A B

a h Prism
Cross – sectional
Area = a
x

P
 24

Figure 3.13

Accelerating force at x, F= Force due to pressure – weight of prism

= PA - ghA

By Newton’s second Law:

F = mass  acceleration
F=ρ hA×a
Thus,

PA− ρ ghA=ρ hA×a

or

P=ρ gh 1+ ( ag )
3.7.3 Forced Vortex
The liquid in the vessel is rotated with the vessel at the same angular velocity,
. A particle on the free surface will be in equilibrium under the action of its
weight W (Figure 3.14), the centrifugal accelerating force, F acting
horizontally and the fluid reaction R.

D
Axis of rotation

x
θ
Fy
A B
o
w
 25

Figure 3.14

For any point at radius x and a height y from the lowest point O, if  is the
angle of inclination of the water surface to the horizontal,

dy F
tan θ= =
dx W

For a constant value of , F will vary with x, since the centrifugal acceleration
is 2x dan F= (W/g)2x.

The surface angle therefore varies and,

dy ω 2 x
tan θ= =
dx g

Integrating will give,

x
ω2 x ω2 x 2
y=∫ dx= +malar
0 g 2g

If y is measured from AB, y= 0 when x= 0 and

2 2
ω x
y=
2g

The water surface is therefore a parabolic revolution.

Example 3.8
A tank containing water moves horizontally with a constant linear acceleration
a of 3m/s2. The tank is 3m long and the depth of water when the tank is at rest
is 1.5m. Calculate:
 26

(a) The angle of water surface when the tank is 1.5m

(b) The maximum pressure intensity on the bottom
(c) The minimum pressure intensity on the bottom

Solution:
Given: a= 3m/s2, h= 1.5m

(a) The angle of water surface to horizontal, 

a
θ=tan −1 =17o
g

(b) The depth at A (maximum pressure),

o
h A =h+h tanθ=1 .5+1 . 5 tan 17 =1 . 96 m

(c) The depth at B (minimum pressure),

h B =h+h tanθ=1 .5−1. 5 tan 17 o =1. 04 m

Problems
1. Consider the two rectangular gates shown in the figure. They are both the
same size, but one (G a t e A) is held in place by a horizontal shaft through
its midpoint and the other ( G a t e B) is cantilevered to a shaft at its top. Now
consider the torque 1' required to hold the gates in places as H is increase.
Choose the valid statement(s): a) T A increases with H. b) T B increases with
H. c) TA does not change with H. d) T B does not change with H.

Shaft
Water Gate A Water
H H Gate B
Shaft
Atmospheric Atmospheric
Pressure Pressure

Figure Q1
[b and c]
2. Find the force of the gate on the block.
 27

Water

10 m 4 m x 4 m gate

2m
Pivot
2m

Block

Figure Q2
[104.4kN]
3. Neglecting the weight of the gate, determine the force acting on the hinge of
the gate.

3m

hinge
water
9 m x 9 m gate
9m
Atmospheric pressure
On this side of gate

Figure Q3
[2.38MN]
4. The rectangular gate measures 6m by 4m and is pin-connected at point A. If
the surface on which the gate rests at A is frictionless. What is the reaction at
A? Neglect the weight of the gate.

3m Hinge
A Atmospheric
Pressure

30o
Stop
6m
Water

Figure Q4
[557kN]
5. A 12m x 12m gate is installed at the end of water reservoir, as shown, and is
hinged at the top. The gate hinge is G m below the reservoir water surface.
The gate is connected to a rectangular tank of water which is 12 m wide (into
 28

the paper) and filled with 6 m of water. The weight to the tank is negligible.
How long (L) would the tank have to be open the gate?

Figure Q5
[18.3m]
6. The triangular gate ABC is pivoted at the bottom edge AC and closes a
triangular opening ABC in the wall of the tank. The opening is 4 m wide (W =
4 m) and 9 m high (H = 9 m). The depth d of water in the tank is 10 m.
Determine the hydrostatic force on the gate and the horizontal force P required
at B to hold the gate closed.
D
E

B
Water P

T = 20oC d
H

A C
A,C
W

View D-D E
View E-E
D

Figure Q6
[323.7kN]
7. Estimate the depth d needed for the rectangular gate to automatically open if
the weight W= 60kN as shown in Figure Q7. The gate is 4m high and 2m
wide. Neglect the weight of the gate.
 29

W
5m

Hinge

4m d
Atmospheric Water
pressure

Gate stop

Figure Q7
[3.24m]
8. For the plane rectangular gate (L x W in size), Figure 8(a), what is the
magnitude of the reaction at A in terms of γw and the dimensions L and W?
For the cylindrical gate, Figure 9(b), will the magnitude of the reaction of A be
greater than, less than, or the same as that for the plane gate? Neglect the
weight of the gates.

1/4L 1/4L
Hinge Hinge
Water Water
B B
Rectangular
L

Gate Smooth
L

Boundary
Si
n
45
45

A
o

(a) (b)
Figure 8
[0.510γwWl2]
9. The floating platform shown is supported at each corner by a hollow sealed
cylinder 1 m in diameter. The platform itself weighs 30kN in air, and each
cylinder weighs 1.0kN per meter of length as in Figure Q9. What total
cylinder length L is required for the platform to float 1 m above the water
surface? Assume that the specific weight of the water is 10,000 N/m. The
platform is square in plan view.

10 m
Floating
Platform
1m Weight = 30kN
L=?
Diameter = 1 m

Figure Q9
 30

[2.24m]
10. The coffee cup in Figure Q10 is removed from the drag race, placed on a
turntable, and rotated about its central axis until a rigid-body mode occurs.
Determine:

(a) the angular velocity which will cause the coffee to just reach the lip of the
cup
(b) the gauge pressure at point A for this condition
(Take the density of coffee as 1100kg/m3)

3cm

0
r
7cm
ω

3cm 3cm

Figure Q10
[36.17rad/s, 107.91Pa]
11. A 3m diameter, 7m long cylinder tank is completely filled with water. The
tank is pulled by a truck on a level road with the 7m long axis being
horizontal. Determine the pressure difference between the front and back ends
of the tank along horizontal line when the truck:
(i) Accelerates at 3m/s2
(ii) Decelerates at 4m/s2
[21kPa, 28kPa]
12. A cylinder with the height of 6.0cm floats in water and its axis perpendicular
to the surface. The length of the cylinder above water is 2.0 cm. Calculate the
cylinder’s mass density.
[666.67kg/m3]