FLUID MECHANICS I

[MEng3501]

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Course Objective
Enables students to understand concepts, principles,
laws,
observations, and models of fluids at rest and in
motion,
Provides basis for understanding fluid behavior for
engineering design and control of fluid systems,

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Continued…………..
Helps students develop competence with mass, energy
and momentum balances for determining resultant
interactions of flows
and engineered and natural systems,
Enables students develop bases for correlating
experimental data, designing procedures, and using
scale models of fluid flows,

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Continued………..
Enables students learn methods for computing head
losses and flows in simple pipes and channels.

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Course Description
Introduction to Fluid Mechanics; Hydrostatics
pressure in Fluids; Flow Classification; Properties of
flows; Viscous fluid flows ; Turbulent flow in pipes;
Dimensional analysis.

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Assessment and evaluation:
Assignment 1- 10%, test1-10%, assignment 2-10%,
project 1-10%, Mid-semester Examination 20%, Final
Examination 40%

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Textbook and References
 Textbook: V.L. Streeter, Fluid Mechanics
 References:
1. White F.M., Fluid Mechanics
2. Munson B.R, Fundamental of Fluid Mechanics
3. Fox R.W., and McDonald A.T., Introduction to Fluid
Mechanics
4. Skelland, Non-Newtonian flow and Heat Transfer.

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Chapter-1
1.1 Introduction to fluid Mechanics:

Fluid mechanics is the study of fluids either in motion

(fluid dynamics) or at rest (fluid statics) and the
subsequent effects of the fluid upon the boundaries, which
may be either solid surfaces or interfaces with other fluids.
The word fluid means a substance having particles which
readily change their relative positions. A fluid may be
defined as substance which deforms continuously under
the action of shear stress, regardless of its magnitude.
Both gases and liquids are classified as fluids, and the
number of fluids engineering applications is enormous:
pumps, fans, turbines, airplanes, ships, windmills, pipes,
missiles, engines, filters, jets, and sprinklers, to name a few.
When you think about it, almost everything on this planet
either is a fluid or moves within or near a fluid. 8
Dimensions and Units
A dimension is the measure by which a physical variable
is expressed quantitatively. A unit is a particular way of
attaching a number to the quantitative dimension.
In fluid mechanics there are only four primary
dimensions from which all other dimensions can be
derived: mass, length, time, and temperature. These
dimensions and their units in both systems are given in
Table 1.1. Note that the Kelvin unit uses no degree symbol.
The braces around a symbol like [M]mean “the
dimension” of mass.

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 Primary dimension

Table: 1.1

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Secondary dimension

Table: 1.2
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Example 1.1
The free vibration of a particle can be simulated by the
following differential equation:

du
m  kx  0
dt
Where: m is mass, u is velocity, t is time and x is
displacement. Determine the dimension for the stiffness
variable k.

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 Continued…………..
du
For the given stiffiness equation m  kx  0
dt
du 1
k m 
dt x
thus

k   m du  1

dt  x
L
 T  1
 M 
T  L
 M  2
1
 
L
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 1.2 The Concept of a Fluid
 From the point of view of fluid mechanics, all matter consists of only
two states, fluid and solid. The difference between the two is perfectly
obvious to the layperson, and it is an interesting exercise to ask a
layperson to put this difference into words. The technical distinction
lies with the reaction of the two to an applied shear or tangential
stress.
 A solid can resist a shear stress by a static deformation; a fluid cannot.
Any shear stress applied to a fluid, no matter how small, will result in
motion of that fluid. The fluid moves and deforms continuously as
long as the shear stress is applied. As a corollary, we can say that a
fluid at rest must be in a state of zero shear stress, a state often called
the hydrostatic stress condition in structural analysis. In this
condition, Mohr’s circle for stress reduces to a point, and there is no
shear stress on any plane cut through the element under stress.
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Continued……..

Fig. A solid at rest can resist shear. (a) Static deflection of the solid; (b) equilibrium
and Mohr’s circle for solid element A. A fluid cannot resist shear. (c) Containing walls
are needed; (d) equilibrium and Mohr’s circle for fluid element A.

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 Continued………….. Free surface

k k

(a) Solid (b) Liquid (c) Gas

Figure 1.1 Comparison Between Solids, Liquids and Gases

• For solid, imagine that the molecules can be fictitiously
linked to each other with springs.
• In fluid, the molecules can move freely but are constrained
through a traction force called cohesion. This force is
interchangeable from one molecule to another 16
Continued…………..
For gases, it is very weak which enables the gas to disintegrate
and move away from its container
For liquids, it is stronger which is sufficient enough to hold the
molecule together and can withstand high compression, which
is suitable for application as hydraulic fluid such as oil.
On the surface, the cohesion forms a resultant force directed
into the liquid region and the combination of cohesion forces
between adjacent molecules from a tensioned membrane
known as free surface

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1.3 Eulerian and Lagrangian Descriptions
Since the fluid flows continuously, any method and technique
developed to analyse flow problems should take into
consideration the continuity of the fluid. There are two types of
approaches that can be used:
1. Eulerian approach — analysis is performed by defining a
control volume to represent fluid domain which allows the
fluid to flow across the volume. This approach is more
appropriate to be used in fluid mechanics.
2. Lagrangian approach — analysis is performed by tracking
down all motion parameters and deformation of a domain as
it moves. This approach is more suitable and widely used for
particle and solid mechanics.

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Continued…………..
The fluid behaviour in which its properties are continuous
field variables, either scalar or vector, throughout the control
volume is known as continuum. From this concept, several
fluid or flow definitions can be made as follows:
Steady state flow — A flow is said to be in steady state if its
properties is only a function of position (x,y,z) but not time t:
    x,y,z), V = V x,y,z)
An example is the velocity of a steady flow of a river where
the upstream and downstream velocities are different but
their values does not change through time.

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Continued…………..
Uniform flow — A flow is said to be uniform if its velocity and
all velocity components is only a function of time t:
V = V t)
An example is the air flow in a constant diameter duct where
the velocity is constant throughout the length of the duct but can
be increased uniformly by increasing the power of the fan.
Isotropic fluid — A fluid is said to be isotropic if its density is
not a function of position (x,y,z) but may vary with time t:
   t)
An example is the density of a gas in a closed container where
the container is heated. The density is constant inside the
container but gradually increases with time as the temperature
increases. 20
1.4 Properties of a Fluid

The three most common fluid such properties

1. Pressure p
2. Density rho
3. Temperature T
4. Coefficient of viscosity
9. Thermal conductivity k
For example, for a single-phase substance such as water
or oxygen, two basic properties such as pressure and
temperature

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Continued…………….

1.4.1 Density
Density of a fluid, ,
Definition: mass per unit volume,
slightly affected by changes in temperature and pressure.
 = mass/volume = m/
Units: kg/m3
Typical values:
Water = 1000 kg/m3;
Air = 1.23 kg/m3

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Continued…………….
1.4.2 Viscosity
 Viscosity, , is a measure of resistance to fluid flow as a result
of intermolecular cohesion. In other words, viscosity can be
seen as internal friction to fluid motion which can then lead to
energy loss.
 Different fluids deform at different rates under the same shear
stress. The ease with which a fluid pours is an indication of its
viscosity. Fluid with a high viscosity such as syrup deforms
more slowly than fluid with a low viscosity such as water. The
viscosity is also known as dynamic viscosity.
Units: N.s/m2 or kg/m/s
Typical values: Water =
1.14x10-3 kg/m/s; Air = 1.78x10-5 kg/m/s
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Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Fluid
obey Newton’s law refer
Fluid Newtonian fluids
of viscosity
Newton’s’ law of viscosity is given by; Example:
du Air
 (1.1) Water
dy Oil
Gasoline
 = shear stress Alcohol
 = viscosity of fluid Kerosene
du/dy = shear rate, rate of strain or Benzene
velocity gradient Glycerine
• The viscosity  is a function only of the condition of the fluid,
particularly its temperature.
• The magnitude of the velocity gradient (du/dy) has no effect on
the magnitude of . 24
Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Fluid
Do not obey
Fluid Newton’s law Non- Newtonian
of viscosity fluids
The viscosity of the non-Newtonian fluid is dependent
on the velocity gradient as well as the condition of the
fluid.

Newtonian Fluids
 a linear relationship between shear stress and the
velocity gradient (rate of shear),
 the slope is constant
 the viscosity is constant

non-Newtonian fluids
 slope of the curves for non-Newtonian fluids varies 25
If the gradient m is constant, the fluid is termed as
Newtonian fluid. Otherwise, it is known as non-Newtonian
fluid. Fig. 1.2 shows several Newtonian and non-Newtonian
fluids.

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1.4.3 Kinematic viscosity, 
Definition: is the ratio of the viscosity to the density;
  /
will be found to be important in cases in which significant
viscous and gravitational forces exist.
Units: m2/s
Typical values:
Water = 1.14x10-6 m2/s; Air = 1.46x10-5 m2/s;
In general,
viscosity of liquids with temperature, whereas

viscosity of gases with in temperature.

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1.4.4 Specific Weight

Specific weight of a fluid, 

Definition: weight of the fluid per unit volume
Arising from the existence of a gravitational force
The relationship  and g can be found using the following:

Since  = m/
therefore  = g (1.3)

Units: N/m3

Typical values:
Water = 9814 N/m3; Air = 12.07 N/m3

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1.4.5 Specific Gravity
The specific gravity (or relative density) can be defined in
two ways:
Definition 1: A ratio of the density of a liquid to the
density of water at standard temperature and pressure (STP)
(20C, 1 atm), or
Definition 2: A ratio of the specific weight of a liquid to the
specific weight of water at standard temperature and
pressure (STP) (20C, 1 atm),
 liquid  liquid
SG  
 water @ STP  water @ STP
Unit: dimensionless.

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Example 1.2

A reservoir of oil has a mass of 825 kg. The reservoir has a

volume of 0.917 m3. Compute the density, specific weight,
and specific gravity of the oil.
Solution:

mass m 825
 oil     900kg / m 3
volume  0.917
weight mg
 oil    g  900x 9.81  8829 N / m 3
volume 

 oil 900
SGoil    0. 9
 w @ STP 998
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1.4.6 Surface Tension
Surface tension coefficient s can be defined as the intensity
of intermolecular traction per unit length along the free
surface of a fluid, and its SI unit is N/m.
The surface tension effect is caused by unbalanced cohesion
forces at fluid surfaces which produce a downward resultant
force which can physically seen as a membrane.
The coefficient is inversely proportional to temperature and
is also dependent on the type of the solid interface.
For example, a drop of water on a glass surface will have a
different coefficient from the similar amount of water on a
wood surface.

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The effect may be becoming significant for small fluid
system such as liquid level in a capillary, as depicted in
Fig. 1.6, where it will decide whether the interaction form
by the fluid and the solid surface is wetted or non-wetted.

If the adhesion of fluid molecules to the adjacent solid

surface is stronger than the intermolecular cohesion, the
fluid is said to wet on the surface. Otherwise, it is a non-
wetted interaction.

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The pressure inside a drop of fluid can be calculated using
a free-body diagram of a spherical shape of radius R cut in
half, as shown in Fig. 1.7, and the force developed around
the edge of the cut sphere is 2R.

This force must be balance with the difference between

the internal pressure pi and the external pressure pe acting
on the circular area of the cut. Thus,
 2R = pR2
2
 p = pi –pe =
R 33
1.4.7 Vapour Pressure
Vapour pressure is the partial pressure produced by fluid vapour in
an open or a closed container, which reaches its saturated condition
or the transfer of fluid molecules is at equilibrium along its free
surface.
In a closed container, the vapour pressure is solely dependent on
temperature. In a saturated condition, any further reduction in
temperature or atmospheric pressure below its dew point will lead
to the formation of water droplets.
On the other hand, boiling occurs when the absolute fluid pressure
is reduced until it is lower than the vapour pressure of the fluid at
that temperature.
For a network of pipes, the pressure at a point can be lower than the
vapour pressure, for example, at the suction section of a pump.
Otherwise, vapour bubbles will start to form and this phenomenon
is termed as cavitation.
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Example: 1.3

Calculate the velocity gradient at a distances of 0,100,150

mm from the boundary if the profile is a parabola with the
vertex 150mm from the boundary, where the velocity is 1
m/sec. Also calculate the shear stresses at these points if
the fluid has a viscosity of 0.804 N-s/m2

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36
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 At y=0mm,
Shear stress
At y=100mm,

Shear stress
At y=150mm,

Shear stress

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Example: 1.4

A cylinder of 150 mm radius rotates concentrically inside a

fixed cylinders of 155 mm radius. Both cylinders are 300
mm long. Determine the viscosity of the liquid which fills
the space between the cylinders if a torque of 0.98 N-m is
required to maintain an angular velocity of 60 r.p.m.

Sol. The torque is transmitted through the fluid layers to the

outer cylinder.
Tangential velocity of the inner cylinder=

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For the small space between the cylinders, the velocity profile
may be assumed to be a straight line, then

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 1.5 Flow Patterns
• The three ways to represent fluid flow:
1. Streamlines — A streamline is formed by tangents of the
velocity field of the flow.
2. Pathlines — A pathline can be formed from fluid particles
of different colour originated from the same points, such
as a line formed after the introduction of ink into a
shallow water flow.
3. Streaklines — A streakline represents a locus made by a
miniature particles or tracers that passes at a same point.

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Exercise 1.1

If the velocity distribution over a plate is given by

2
u y  y2
3

In which u is the velocity in m/s at a distance y meters

above the plate, determine the shear stress at y =0 and
y=0.15m. Take
  0.863Ns / m2
Ans. 0.574 N/m2, 0.416N/m2

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Exercise 1.2

A Newtonian fluid is filled in the clearance between a

shaft and concentric sleeve. When a force of 490N is
applied to the sleeve parallel to the shaft the sleeve
attains a speed of 70m/sec. if 2450N force is applied,
what speed will the sleeve attain? The temperature of
the sleeve remains constant.

Ans. 3.5 m/sec.

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END OF
CHAPTER-1

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