TENSILE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH DETERMINATION

DISCUSSION OF THEORY/CONCEPTS

The study of material strength, also known as material mechanics, mainly pertains to various techniques for
figuring out stresses and strains in structural elements including beams, columns, and shafts. The materials'
characteristics, such as their yield strength, ultimate strength, Young's modulus, and Poisson's ratio, are considered
by the methodologies used to anticipate a structure's reaction to loading and its susceptibility to different failure
modes. In addition, boundary restrictions, abrupt changes in geometry, such as holes, and the macroscopic
(geometric) features of the mechanical element are taken into account. A more comprehensive theory of the elastic
and plastic behavior of materials was developed by first considering the behavior of one- and two-dimensional
structural components, whose states of stress can be roughly described as two-dimensional. Stephen Timoshenko
was a significant founding pioneer in the field of materials mechanics.

Compressive stress (also known as compression) is the stress condition brought on by an applied load that acts to
shorten the material's length in the direction of the load; in other words, it is a stress state that squeezes the
material. The uniaxial compression brought on by the action of opposing pushing forces is a straightforward instance
of compression. Materials' compressive strength is often greater than their tensile strength. However, due to
additional failure modes like buckling that depend on the geometry of the component, structures loaded in
compression are also vulnerable. Tensile stress, also known as the stress, induced by pulling the material, is the state
of stress brought on by an applied force that tends to cause the material to lengthen along the axis of the applied
load. The shape of the cross-section has no bearing on the strength of structures with equal cross-sectional areas
loaded in tension. Materials under tension are vulnerable to stress concentrations caused by things like material
flaws or abrupt geometry changes. While brittle materials, like ceramics, can break much below their maximum
material strength, ductile materials, like the majority of metals, can tolerate minor flaws.

INTRODUCTION

According to mechanics of materials, a material's strength is its capacity to sustain an applied load without failing
or deforming plastically. The study of material strength focuses on forces acting on materials and the resulting
deformations. When the forces are stated on a unit basis, a load applied to a mechanical member will result in
internal forces known as stresses within the part. The material is deformed by the forces operating on it in a variety
of ways, including breaking them completely. When those deformations are also measured as units, the material's
deformation is referred to as strain. To determine a mechanical member's load capacity, the stresses and strains that
occur inside of that part must be calculated. The geometry of the member, its limitations, the loads placed on the
member, and the characteristics of the material from which the member is made, all need to be fully described in
order to do this. The applied loads could be rotating or axial (tensile or compressive) (strength shear). The condition
of stress and state of strain at every place within the member can be computed given a thorough description of the
loading and the member's geometry. The member's strength (load carrying capability), deformations (stiffness
characteristics), and stability (ability to maintain its original configuration) may all be determined if the condition of
stress and strain within the member is understood. The computed stresses can then be contrasted with an indicator
of the member's strength, such as the yield or ultimate strength of the material. The member's computed deflection
may be contrasted with deflection standards derived from the member's use. You can contrast the applied load with
the member's calculated buckling load. The member's dynamic response may be estimated using the calculated
stiffness and mass distribution, and the member's dynamic response may then be compared to the acoustic
environment in which it will be employed. The term "material strength" refers to the point on the engineering stress-
strain curve (sometimes referred to as the "yield stress") beyond which the material undergoes deformations that
will not fully reverse upon removal of the loading, causing the member to have a permanent deflection. The utmost
amount of stress that a material can withstand is referred to as its ultimate strength. The stress value at fracture
determines the fracture strength (the last stress value recorded).

i. DEFINITION

Tensile strength refers to the breaking strength of a material when applying a force that can break
many strands of the material at once, at a constant rate of extension/load. Tensile strength is the
capacity of a material to endure a pulling (tensile) force. It is often expressed as a force per unit of cross-
sectional area.

The amount of load or stress that a material can withstand before stretching and breaking is known
as its tensile strength. Tensile strength, as its name suggests, refers to a material's resistance to tension
brought on by mechanical loads. One of the most significant and frequently measured qualities of
materials used for structural purposes is their capacity to resist breaking under tensile stress.

The tensile strength is the highest tensile stress that a material can withstand before failing, though
the precise definition of failure will typically depend on the kind and design of the material. Reduced
ductility and increased brittleness are linked to faster corrosion rates, which can cause the material to fail
in a way that is far more harmful than ductile failure.

Tensile strength is a crucial concept in engineering, as well as in the disciplines of mechanical

engineering, structural engineering, and materials science. For brittle materials as opposed to ductile
materials, tensile strength is more crucial.

Compressive strength is a maximum level of compressive stress that causes ductile failure
(infinite theoretical yield) or brittle failure in a material (rupture as the result of crack propagation, or
sliding along a weak plane). Materials, parts, and structures all have compressive strengths that can be
measured. The value of uniaxial compressive stress achieved when a material totally fails is, by definition,
the ultimate compressive strength.

The particular test procedures and measurement conditions have an impact on compressive
strength measurements. Typically, compression strengths are provided in accordance with a particular
technical standard.

ii. IMPORTANCE

When it comes to engineering design, a metal's compression and tensile strengths are crucial. The basic
goal of any engineering design is to limit the amount of plastic deformation. Engineers frequently use the
mechanical attribute of tensile strength to choose important design parameters. Tensile strength is necessary
for basic materials engineering formulas, hence modern design software also has to know this information
about the material. It's possible that the critical stress in a design is not usually tensile strength. In fact,
tensile tension might not even exist in some designs. Tensile strength, however, can also be a sign of a
material's other strengths. When additional mechanical qualities are not accessible, engineers might utilize
tensile strength as another measure of the overall material strength. Tensile strength, for instance, can
generally indicate if two materials are in the same family if fracture toughness is unavailable (i.e.-polymeric
family).

Tensile strength and modulus are crucial factors to take into account in many mechanical and structural
applications where components are subject to either direct or reactive tensional stress. Tensile failure can
 also be more abrupt and disastrous, especially with brittle materials, in contrast to failures brought on by
fatigue or other mechanical flaws. Therefore, a key factor in mechanical design is to understand the ultimate
tensile strength and stress-strain behavior (brittle versus ductile).

When a material is subjected to direct compression loads, compressive strength, commonly referred to as
compression strength, is a crucial mechanical parameter for design engineers. Metals' critical stress is rarely
found to be their compressive strength. However, if the force is largely in compression, compressive strength
can easily be the key design characteristic in other materials including concrete, plastic, wood, and
composites. Common materials including metals, concrete, and wood have well-documented compressive
strength characteristics.

iii. PROPERTIES

Tensile characteristics reveal how a material will respond to tension-based forces. A well-prepared
specimen is loaded in a very controlled way during a tensile test, which measures the applied force and
the specimen's elongation over a predetermined distance. Tensile tests are used to identify several
tensile qualities such as the elastic limit, yield point, elongation, proportional limit, reduction in area, and
modulus of elasticity. Tensile testing, which yields a load versus elongation curve that is subsequently
transformed into a stress vs strain curve, is used to determine the tensile properties of various materials.
Tensile testing, which is often detailed by an ASTM standard test, is typically used to determine the
tensile qualities of materials.

Theoretically, the compression test just has the opposite loading direction as the tension test. When
conducting a compression test, the sample is compressed while the load and displacement are being
monitored. Mechanical parameters such as the compressive yield stress, compressive ultimate stress,
and compressive modulus of elasticity are obtained from compression testing. Similar to how tensile
yield strength is tested, compression yield stress is as well. It is known as the tension corresponding to
0.002 in./in. when testing metals. plastic tense the point of permanent yield on the stress-strain curve is
where the compressive yield stress for polymers is measured. For the majority of the frequently used
structural materials, moduli are typically higher in compression. The stress at which a specimen ruptures
is known as the ultimate compressive strength. Since many materials do not display rapid fracture in
compression, it is significantly more difficult to calculate this number for a compression test than it is for
a tensile test. Results for non-rupturing materials, like the majority of plastics, can be expressed as the
compressive strength at a particular deformation, like 1%, 5%, or 10% of the sample's original height. The
compressive strength of various materials, such as concrete, is the most crucial material characteristic
that engineers employ when creating a structure. A concrete mixture's compressive strength is
frequently used to assess whether it satisfies the criteria of the task specifications.

iv. CHARACTERISTICS

By doing a tensile test and observing the engineering stress vs strain, the ultimate tensile strength is
often determined. The ultimate tensile strength is the highest point on the stress-strain curve and has
units of stress. The compressive strength is the corresponding point when compression takes the place of
tension. When designing ductile parts, tensile strengths are rarely essential, but they are crucial when
designing brittle members. For popular materials including metals, composites, ceramics, polymers, and
wood, they are tabulated. The value of a material's ultimate tensile strength does not depend on the size
of the test specimen because it is an intense attribute. However, depending on the material, it might also
 depend on other elements including how the specimen was prepared, whether or not there were any
surface flaws, and how hot the test setting and test material were.
A tiny sample with a defined cross-sectional area is typically pulled with a tensometer at a constant strain
rate (change in gauge length divided by initial gauge length) rate until the sample breaks. Indentation
hardness and tensile strength have a linear relationship when testing various metals. With the aid of
lightweight, even portable equipment like handheld Rockwell hardness testers, this significant
relationship enables economically significant nondestructive testing of bulk metal deliveries. [5] This
useful correlation enables quality assurance in the metalworking industries to go far beyond the
laboratory and standard testing apparatuses. A certain degree of deformation may be regarded as the
upper limit for compressive load because some materials deform irreversibly while others fracture at
their compressive strength limit. For the design of structures, compressive strength is a crucial factor. A
universal testing device is frequently used to determine compressive strength. The precise test
procedure and measurement conditions have an impact on compressive strength measurements.
Typically, compression strengths are provided in accordance with a particular technical standard.
Typically, a compressive test is used to experimentally determine the compressive strength. The same
equipment that is used in tensile tests is also employed in this experiment. However, a uniaxial
compressive load is used instead of a uniaxial tensile load.

v. TABLES/FIGURES/GRAPHS
vi. ADVANTAGE/DISADVANTAGE

Tensile testing gives information on the integrity and safety of materials, components, and products,
assisting producers in making sure their completed goods are suitable for their intended use and
produced to the highest standards. Tensile test results can be utilized for a variety of purposes, such as:
• batch quality
• manufacturing consistency
• design process assistance
• material cost reduction and lean manufacturing objectives
• ensuring compliance with national and industry standards.

Components are destroyed, sample preparation is expensive and time-consuming, and small parts
are frequently unable to be evaluated, among other drawbacks.

Compression testing gives information on the integrity and safety of materials, components, and
products, assisting producers in ensuring the highest quality and suitability of their finished goods. A
compression test can yield data that can be utilized for a variety of purposes, such as:
• batch quality
 • consistency in production
• design process assistance
• material cost reduction and lean manufacturing objectives
• ensuring conformity with national and industry standards.

Advantages Fissured clay specimens cannot be used for the test.

• Because some soils' angles of shearing resistance are not zero, the test may be deceptive. For such
soils, the shear strength does not match the compressive strength by a factor of two.

vii. USAGE

The term "tensile strength" describes a structure's capacity to withstand loads without breaking
under severe stress or deformation. The peak tension force that a sample can withstand is multiplied by the
cross-sectional area of the sample to determine its tensile strength, also known as ultimate tensile strength.
Tensile strength is assessed with a tensile tester. The tensile tester is equipped with a load cell that measures
tensile force. A tensile test is also frequently used to determine the Young's modulus of elasticity, yield
stress, elongation, strain, and ultimate tensile stress of a material.

Compressive strength is frequently employed for concrete quality assurance and specification
requirements. The target tensile (flexural) requirements are known to engineers, who express them in terms
of compressive strength.

REFERENCE:

https://www.corrosionpedia.com/calculating-tensile-stress-why-it-needs-to-be-done-now/2/7018

https://www.corrosionpedia.com/definition/1620/compressive-strength-material-science

https://industrialmetalservice.com/blog/tension-vs-compression-forces-effects-on-metal/#:~:text=Compression
%20and%20tensile%20strengths%20are,deformation%20as%20small%20as%20possible.

https://thegundcompany.com/compressive-strength-in-composite-materials

https://l.messenger.com/l.php?u=https%3A%2F%2Fen.m.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki
%2FStrength_of_materials&h=AT1OQNBYji7ALY0oum6B77YV0TV-
QpsLwom5XWqrI3Fo3bEI1NzcviZ6z8YpsmY8GBNxFUO-
27hYUmuOFVAVTEe_kfuJ356PIKIgcn4sFX2SCEQrffnwcgHOU7xPF3fKtxOfhw

https://l.messenger.com/l.php?u=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.engineersedge.com
%2Fstrength_of_materials.htm&h=AT1OQNBYji7ALY0oum6B77YV0TV-
QpsLwom5XWqrI3Fo3bEI1NzcviZ6z8YpsmY8GBNxFUO-
27hYUmuOFVAVTEe_kfuJ356PIKIgcn4sFX2SCEQrffnwcgHOU7xPF3fKtxOfhw

https://l.messenger.com/l.php?u=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.americanmicroinc.com%2Fresources%2Fultimate-
tensile-strength%2F&h=AT1OQNBYji7ALY0oum6B77YV0TV-QpsLwom5XWqrI3Fo3bEI1NzcviZ6z8YpsmY8GBNxFUO-
27hYUmuOFVAVTEe_kfuJ356PIKIgcn4sFX2SCEQrffnwcgHOU7xPF3fKtxOfhw

https://www.instron.com/en/resources/test-types/compression-test

https://www.e-education.psu.edu/matse81/node/2100