CHAPTER 2: MECHANICAL BEHAVIOR and TESTING PROCEDURES

FUNDAMENTAL DEFINITION: (in mechanical testing, we attach specific meanings to certain terms)
➢ Mass – is a property (overview or summary quality) of a body, express in kilograms
➢ Weight – the gravitational force exerted on a body by the earth, moon, or other celestial body, expressed in pounds (English
unit) Newtons (metric unit), weight varies with location and is not a property
➢ Density – is mass per unit volume expressed in kg/m³ or lb/ft³. It varies with temperature, pressure and other conditions, and
is a property of material
➢ Unit Weight – given in N/m³ or lb/ft³ may be useful in computing load, but it is not a material property
‫ ﻬ‬water has a density of just about 1.0 Mg/m³
➢ Relative Density (formerly Specific Gravity) – the ratio of the density of a material to that of water in its densest state and is
dimensionless
‫ ﻬ‬a material’s density when expressed in Mg/m³ is numerically equal to its relative density
Stress and Strain:
In testing materials, loads are applied and measured by means of a testing machine (usually the Universal Testing Machine). Loads are
usually expressed force units, like kilonewtons, although for certain test like torsion tests, the load may be expressed in units of moment,
like kilonewton-meter per radian. Stress is the intensity of the internally distributed forces or components of forces that resist a change
in the form of a body. For structural material the unit commonly used is megapascal (MPa). It is customary to compute stresses on the
basis of the cross-sectional dimensions before loading which is called original dimensions.
Two Basic Kinds of Stress:
1. Direct (tension and compression)
2. Shear
Deformation is used as a general term to indicate the change in form of a body; the deformation may be due to
(1) stress
(2) to thermal change
(3) to change in moisture
(4) to other causes
Deformation is usually taken to be a linear change is measured in length units. In relation with direct stress, deformation is usually taken
to be a linear change and is measured in length unit. In torsion test, it is customary to measure deformation as an angle of twist, called
detrusion between two specified sections. In flexure tests, the deformation may be expressed in terms of deflection of some specified
point of a beam from its original position
Strain is the change per unit length in a linear dimension of a body, the change accompanying a change in stress. Strain is a unit
deformation due to stress. It is a ratio, or dimensionless number, and usually quite small. Strain is usually express in terms of mm/m or
µm/m
Set, or permanent set – the deformation or strain remaining in a previously stressed body after release of load
Nominal stresses – stresses and strain based on the original dimensions
Nominal Strains – are calculated on the basis of the instantaneous dimensions under given loads

Stiffness:
It is a measure of rigidity which is the amount of resistance with which a body opposes change of form. It has to do with the relative
deformability of material under load. Stiffness is measured by the rate of stress with respect to strain. The greater the stress required
to produce strain, the stiffer the material.

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Modulus of Elasticity (E) is the ratio of stress to corresponding strain when a material under simple stress at proportional limit. In terms
of stress-strain diagram, the modulus of elasticity is the slope of stress-strain diagram in the range of linear proportionality of stress to
strain.

Three types of Modulus of Elasticity:

1. Modulus in Tension
2. Modulus in Compression
3. Modulus in Shear

Young’s Modulus is the measure of stiffness under tensile stress

Modulus of Rigidity is the stiffness of material under simple shear

Stress-Strain Diagram:
The Stress-Strain Diagram is a graph plotted with values of stress as ordinates and values of strain as abscissas. The term stress-strain
diagram is often extended to cover diagram in which the ordinates are values applied load or applied moment and abscissas are values
of extension, compression, deflection, or twist.
Elasticity:
Elasticity is the property of a material by virtue of which deformation caused by stress disappear on removal of the stress. Some
substances, like gases, possess elasticity of volume only, but solids in addition elasticity to form or shape. A perfectly elastic body is
conceived to be the one that completely recovers its original shape and dimension after release of stress. No materials are known that
are perfectly elastic throughout the entire range of stress up to rupture. Some materials such as cast iron, concrete, and certain
nonferrous metals, are imperfectly elastic even at relatively low stress.
Elastic Action:
If a tensile load within elastic range is applied, the elastic axial strain result from a separation of the atoms or molecules in the direction
of the loading. The degree to which elastic action is exhibited is often a function of the test condition. Some materials which are
imperfectly elastic under virgin loading, appear to become elastic after being pressed, and overstressing in some metals appears to raise
the limit of elastic action. The range of elastic action which may be great for some material at normal temperatures, is usually reduced
with increasing temperature. Elastic behavior is sometimes improperly associated with two other phenomena:
1. the linear proportionality of stress to strain and
2. nonpermanent absorption of energy during cyclic variation in stress
Yielding:
In test of material under uniaxial loading, three criteria of elastic strength or elastic failure have been used: the elastic limit, the
proportional limit, and the yield strength. Elastic limit is the greatest stress a material is capable of developing without a permanent set
remaining on complete release of stress. to determine elastic limit, require successive application and release of greater loads until a
load is found at which permanent set is produced. Proportional limit is the greatest stress that a material is capable of developing
without a deviation from a straight-line proportionality between stress strain. The proportional limit is determined by use of stress-
strain diagram, because of its simplicity, it has been used as a measure of the elastic limit. The proportional limit is sometimes called
“proportional elastic limit”. The determination of the proportional can be subject to considerable imprecision because of the difficulty
of detecting when the stress-strain curve departs from the straight-line proportionality. For many practical purposes, a measure of
elastic strength called the yield strength is used. Yield strength uses as a criterion a specified degree of plastic yielding, which is
somewhat arbitrary measure, but it is more easily determined. Yield stress, another term frequently used by structural engineers which
is the stress level of highly ductile materials, like structural steel, at which large strain take place without further increase in stress.

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Plasticity:
Plasticity is the property that enables material to undergo permanent deformation without rupture. A general expression of plastic
action would involve the time rate of strain since plastic materials can deform under constant sustained stress. It would also involve the
concept of limit of deformation before rupture. Evidence of plastic action in structural materials is called yield, plastic flow, or creep.
Plastic action is caused by slips (to slide due to lack of friction) induced by shear stress such strain can occur in all materials at high
stresses even at normal temperature. Plastic strain can also take place in materials at relatively low stresses provided ample time is
allowed and high temperature provided. Plasticity is of importance in forming, shaping, and extruding operation
Ductility:
Ductility is the property of a material that enables it to be drawn out to a considerable extent before rupture and at the same time to
sustain an appreciable load, example is mild steel. It is also an ability of a material to be drawn out longitudinally to a reduced section
without fracture under the action of a tensile force. Brittleness is a property of a nonductile material that fractures with relatively little
or no elongation like cast iron, concrete, glass, etc. Usually, the tensile strength of brittle materials is only a fraction of their compressive
strength. The usual measures of ductility are the percentage elongation and the reduction of area in the tension test. Ductility is also
determined by cold bend test.
Maximum strength:
Ultimate strength has to do with the maximum stress a material can develop. The ultimate strengths are computed on the basis of the
maximum load carried by the test piece and the original cross-sectional dimensions; these may be referred to as “nominal strengths”
ultimate strengths are usually stated in terms of kind of stress producing the failure. Elastic strength is the maximum tensile stress that
a material is capable of developing and in practice is the maximum stress developed by a specimen of material during the course of
loading to rupture. Compressive strength is the maximum compressive stress that a material is capable of developing, with a material
that fails in compression by rupturing, the compressive strength has a definite value. The measure of ultimate strength in flexure and
torsion, the moduli of rupture in flexure and torsion, are computed on the basis of certain assumption.
‫ ﻬ‬Hardness is a measure of resistance of a material to surface indentation or abrasion, may in general be thought of as a function
of the stress required to produce some specified type of surface failure
‫ ﻬ‬Endurance is the capacity of material to withstand repeated application of stress
‫ ﻬ‬Fatigue strength is the maximum stress that can be applied a given number of times without causing failure
‫ ﻬ‬Fatigue limit is the limiting value of fatigue strength reach as the number of stress cycles becomes large
Failure:
When conducting test to failure of materials and structural parts or members, it is important to observe and record the type of failure
and characteristics of failure. This observation only on the final fracture but also on yield, slip, scaling, necking down, localized crack
development, etc. Although observation of failure is necessarily qualitative much can be learned from the study of failures and from the
kind of material. defects may be cause for invalidating test. It is important to distinguish between failure of material and failure of the
test piece owing to the condition in the set up. We are much concerned with the nature of resistance to deformation. While complete
rupture or disintegration may provide obvious demonstration, the destruction of the material in only aspect of the question.
What constitutes failure?
Failure can occur in three fundamental ways:
1. by slip or flow
2. by pulling apart or separation
3. or by buckling
Slip o flow occurs under the action of shearing stresses where parallel planes within an element of a material move (slip or slide) in
parallel direction directions. Continuous action in this manner at constant volume and without disintegration of materials is called, creep
or plastic flow. Tensile or compressive loading, direct shear, torsional, or flexural loadings, may induce stress in which shearing stress
cause slip. In simple tension test, failure may occur due to slip, which is a shear-induced action. Separation is an action induced by tensile
stresses. It takes place when the stress normal to a plane exceeds the internal forces that bind the material together and is often called
cleavage fracture. The state of stress that involve tensile stresses that cause cleavage fracture may be induced to loadings other than
primary tensile loading. Buckling is a compression phenomenon. It is exemplified by an end-loaded slender column; after some critical
level of load the resistance of the composite mass drops and system of forces is unstable. A buckling failure may be induced by loadings
other than primary compressive loading.
Energy Capacity:
The capacity of a material to absorb or store energy is of importance in connection with problem such as shock resistance and impact
loading. The basic principle involved is that work or energy is equal to force times distance (Wk = Fd). In general, work done on elastic
body is stored as “strain” energy and can be recovered mechanically. Work done on a plastic body is converted into nonmechanical
energy, especially heat. Elastic resilience is the amount of energy absorbed in stressing a material up to the elastic limit, or the amount

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of energy that can be recovered when stress is released from elastic limit. Modulus of resilience – the energy stored per unit volume at
the elastic limit. The modulus of resilience is a measure of what is called “elastic energy”. When a material is subjected to repeated
loading, during any cycle of loading and unloading or vice versa, some energy is permanently absorbed or lost, this phenomenon of lost
energy is called “hysteresis”. Toughness involves the amount of energy required to rupture a material, it may be measured by the
amount of work per unit volume of a material required to carry that material to failure under static loading, called modulus of toughness.
Toughness is a measure of what may be called the ultimate energy strength of a material. It is important in the selection of a material
for types of service where impact loads are applied that form time to time may cause stresses above the yield point
TESTING PROCEDURES
Purpose of Mechanical Test:
Strength is one of the important considerations in the design of structures and machines. Mechanical properties specifically defined as
those having to do with the behavior (either elastic or nonelastic) of a material under applied force. This is usually expressed in terms
of quantities primarily a function of stress or strain but occasionally like time and temperature. Mechanical testing is concerned with
the determination of measures of mechanical properties. Primary measurements involved the determination of load and of change of
length. The fundamental mechanical properties are strength, stiffness, elasticity, plasticity, and energy capacity. Strength of material is
measured by the stress at some specified limiting condition develops where the liming conditions or criteria of failure are termination
of elastic action and rupture. Hardness which is usually indicated by resistance to indention or abrasion at the surface of the material
may be considered as particular type of measure of strength. Stiffness has to do with the magnitude of deformation that occurs under
load within the range of elastic behavior and stiffness is measured with the modulus of elasticity. Elasticity refers to the ability of a
material to deform without permanent set on release of stress. Plasticity indicates the ability of a material to deform in the inelastic to
plastic range without rupture. Energy capacity is the energy required to rupture a material as a measure of its toughness
Types of Mechanical Tests:
The relation between different test procedures can be made clear by an orderly classification of test variables, and the principal types
are:
(1) those having to do with the manner in which load is applied
(2) those having to do with the conditions of the material or specimen itself and of the surroundings during the test
Loading Methods:
Method of loading is the most common basis for designating or classifying mechanical test
Five primary types of loading governed by stress condition:
(1) tension (2) compression (3) direct shear (4) torsion (5) flexure
In tension and compression, one tries to apply an axial load to a test specimen to obtain uniform distribution of stress over the critical
cross section. In direct shear test, one attempts to obtain uniform distribution of stress, but ideal condition is never satisfied because
the shear stresses developed within the body under direct shear loads. Torsion tests have an advantage over direct shear tests since
strains can be determined by measurement of the angle of twist. In flexure tests, both tension and compression are involved and the
composite effects are studied.
Three classifications of test with respect to the rate at which the load is applied:
1. Static test – if the load is applied at a short time and slowly enough that the speed of testing can be considered having a negligible
effect on the result that test may be conducted for several minutes to several hours
2. Dynamic tests – the load is applied very rapidly so that the effect of inertia and the time element are involved; in special case
where load is applied suddenly, as by striking a blow, the test is called impact test
3. Long test – if the load I sustained over long period, say for a month or even years, in which creep is a special type
Test Conditions:
aside from loading, one must consider the conditions of material at the time of test and suitable conditions if they affect the test results.
The mechanical properties of some materials are affected by moisture conditions. Known moisture conditions are required for a
standard test so that the test results obtained by different operators will be comparable. For special purposes, test may be conducted
that involve the use of corrosive atmosphere, or baths containing substances designed to ensure neutral or corrosive reactions. For
planning or specifying the details of a test, the makeup of the specimen in relation to the physical condition or nature of material
requires consideration. In conducting a particular test, the manner of holding, gripping, supporting, or bedding the specimen should
receive attention as well as the stability of specimen.
Grouping of tests with respect to number of loads applied:
1. First Group – include most of all tests made, that is, a single application of load constitutes the test
2. Second Group – the load is applied many times, millions of times if necessary; the most important category of this tests is the
endurance or fatigue tests, the purpose is to determine the endurance whose purpose is to determine the endurance of fatigue
limit of a material or of an actual part

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DESIGN CONDITIONS
The ideal test should be meaningful, reliable, and reproducible of known precision and economical. The selection of a procedure should
be controlled by the significance of test, guided by economy of effort, and influenced by a sense of proportion.
In the design of test, the following fundamental questions are to be considered:
1. What is the nature of answer sought?
2. What test can be made to provide an answer?
3. How will the test results be related to performance?
4. What are the limitations of the type of test selected?
5. How many samples are necessary to obtain representative results?
TEST SPECIMENS
Selection:
Specimen must be selected and prepared so as to give reliable indication of the properties of the materials or parts they represent
two problems involved in the selection of specimen for testing:
1. the setting up of physical procedures for securing samples
2. The determination of the number of specimens or frequency of test necessary
in many instances the number of specimens or test to be used is based on custom or experience
for routine testing and inspection, the sampling procedures is usually prescribed
above all, goof sense should be used in both selection and the preparation of specimen
Preparation:
In specimen of metal, if a rough “blank” is taken by shearing, punching, or flame-cutting, make sure that that the finished specimen
does not contain any of the damaged metal. Care should be taken not to bend the piece, because working of the metal tends to change
its properties. Specimens of concrete, mortar, and serval other types of materials have to be molded while in the plastic state. Wood
specimen should be sawed, planed, or turned in such a way as to avoid sharp saw cut, nicks, or split fibers on critical surface. The size
of finished specimen is governed by the size of the piece or product from which it is taken and by the capacity of the testing machine
available to test it. In many materials, the degree of homogeneity or uniformity of structure of the material may dictate the size of
specimen that can be used
Testing Apparatus:
Consideration in selection of apparatus:
1. the purpose of the test
2. the accuracy required
3. convenience or availability
4. economy
For routine testing, the accuracy and the precision required should be readily attainable with normal equipment, but its accuracy and
precision should be known and maintained. For work of high precision, consistent accuracy in all measurements is needed.
Considerations of convenience and economy are dictated by the equipment available in a particular laboratory, however, within the
limits of required accuracy and precision, the procedure that is simplest and least time-consuming should be selected.
MEASUREMENTS
Although determination of quantitative measures on many properties of materials calls for a wide variety of observations, the basic
quantities to be measured are relatively few. In mechanical testing, most measurements ultimately have to do with the determination
of stress and strain. In order to control the accuracy of numerical data, it is necessary to its limit of error. The error in the indicated
readings of a measuring instrument is determined by a process of calibration. Related to the accuracy of an instrument are the sensitivity
and the least reading of the instrument and these are indication of precision. Sensitivity is express in terms of smallest value of the
quantity to be measured that bring about a response of the measuring instrument. Least reading is the smallest value that can be read
from an instrument having a graduated scale. The precision of a measuring device is limited by its sensitivity and least reading, but even
a sensitive instrument is not necessarily accurate. All measurements, except for individual objects, are subject to accidental variation
that must be controlled if the final results of a test are to be of known precision. Successive readings are usually are not identical, that
is discrepancies occur and it can be concluded that we do not obtain true measurements and by chance we do not know what we do,
therefore, errors are unavoidable and must be considered. The two classes of errors are systematic errors which are often cumulative
errors of the true value that they tend to fall on one side of the true value; it can be instrumental, personal, or natural and the accidental
errors tend to fall randomly on the plus or minus side of the true value and tend to be self-compensating if a series of measurement is
taken. In contrast to systematic errors, accidental error cannot be corrected, instead statistical methods are used to analyze them.

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