Deformation:

Deformation often referred to strain, is the change in the size and shape of an
object due to the change in temperature or an applied force. Depending on the size,
material and the force applied, various forms of deformation may occur. Based on
these factors, deformation is classified into the following:

1) Elastic deformation: Elastic deformation is a change of the shape of the

body as a reaction to applied stress. This deformation is only temporary and
once the stress is released, the undeformed shape of the body is restored, as
shown in the figure below.

A classic example of elastic deformation is the stretching of a rubber band.

2) Plastic deformation:
Plastic deformation is defined as a process in which the object due to applied
force changes its size or shape in a way that is not reversible. Plastic
deformation is seen in many objects, including:

• Plastics
• Metals
• Soils
• Rocks
• Concrete
Stress-Strain Curve
When we study solids and their mechanical properties, information regarding their
elastic properties is most important. We can learn about the elastic properties of
materials by studying the stress-strain relationships, under different loads, in these
materials. The material’s stress-strain curve gives its stress-strain relationship. In a
stress-strain curve, the stress and its corresponding strain values are plotted. An
example of a stress-strain curve is given below

Explaining Stress-Strain Graph

The different regions in the stress-strain diagram are:
(i) Proportional Limit
It is the region in the stress-strain curve that obeys Hooke’s Law. In this limit, the
stress-strain ratio gives us a proportionality constant known as Young’s modulus.
The point OA in the graph represents the proportional limit.
(ii) Elastic Limit
It is the point in the graph up to which the material returns to its original position
when the load acting on it is completely removed. Beyond this limit, the material
doesn’t return to its original position, and a plastic deformation starts to appear in
it.
(iii) Yield Point
The yield point is defined as the point at which the material starts to deform
plastically. After the yield point is passed, permanent plastic deformation occurs.
There are two yield points (i) upper yield point (ii) lower yield point.
(iv) Ultimate Stress Point
It is a point that represents the maximum stress that a material can endure before
failure. Beyond this point, failure occurs.
(v) Fracture or Breaking Point
It is the point in the stress-strain curve at which the failure of the material takes
place.
Hooke’s Law
In the 19th-century, while studying springs and elasticity, English scientist Robert
Hooke noticed that many materials exhibited a similar property when the stress-
strain relationship was studied. There was a linear region where the force required
to stretch the material was proportional to the extension of the material, known as
Hooke’s Law.
Hooke’s Law states that the strain of the material is proportional to the applied
stress within the elastic limit of that material.

Mathematically, Hooke’s law is commonly expressed as:

F = –k.x
Where F is the force, x is the extension length, and k is the constant of
proportionality known as spring constant in N/m.
Tensile Test:
Tensile test is a form of tension testing whereby controlled tension is applied to a
sample until it fully fails. This is one of the most common mechanical testing
techniques. Tensile testing provides details of the tensile mechanical properties of
a material. These properties can be plotted on a graph as a stress/ strain curve to
show details such as the point at which the material failed as well as providing
details of properties such as the modulus of elasticity, strain and yield strength.

Tensile testing has a variety of uses, including:

1) Selecting materials for an application
2) Predicting how a material will perform under different forces
3) Determining whether the requirements of a specification, contract or standard
are met
4) Demonstrating proof of concept for a new product
5) Proving characteristics for a proposed patent
6) Providing standard quality assurance data for scientific and engineering
functions
7) Comparing technical data for different material options
8) To provide evidence for use in legal proceedings

Yield Strength:

The yield strength is the point at which plastic deformation occurs under stress.
This is determined during testing over a measured gauge length via the use of
devices known as extensometers. In engineering structural design, yield strength is
very important. For example, when designing a component, it must support the
force incurred during use, and the component must not deform plastically. In other
words, a material with sufficient yield strength should be selected. Yield strength is
expressed in terms of N/m2 or pascals.

Ultimate Strength:

The ultimate strength is the maximum stress or load that a material can sustain
before complete fracture under external load. Most engineering materials show an
ultimate strength of 1.5 – 2.0 times higher than yield strength. Various differences
between yield strength and ultimate strength are given below:

Similarities between yield strength and ultimate strength

1) For highly brittle materials, yield strength and ultimate strength are also same
(plastic deformation of brittle materials is negligible).
2) Both are basically measurement of stress.
3) Both are measured in same unit (N/mm2).
4) Apart from material, its composition, crystal structures, imperfections, etc.,
temperature and inbuilt stress (residual stress) can influence both of them.

Differences between yield strength and ultimate strength

Yield Strength Ultimate Strength

Yield strength is defined as the Ultimate strength is defined as the
maximum stress that a solid material maximum stress that a solid material
can withstand when it is deformed can withstand before its failure.
within its elastic limit.
It is the stress corresponding to the yieldIt is the stress corresponding to the
point (upper) in the engineering stress- ultimate tensile strength (UTS) point in
strain curve under tensile loading. the engineering stress-strain curve under
tensile loading.
Brittle materials do not exhibit any yield Ultimate tensile strength (UTS) is
point. So they do not have yield considered as the failure criteria for
strength. brittle material.
In ductile materials, yield strength is For ductile materials, ultimate strength
much lower than ultimate strength. is roughly 1.5 times higher than yield
strength.
Yield strength is used while designing Ultimate tensile strength is used while
components or structures made of designing components or structures
ductile materials. made of brittle material. It is also
essential parameter in metal forming
processes.

Ductility
Ductility relates to the elongation of a tensile test. The percentage of elongation is
calculated by the maximum gage length divided by the original gage length.
Modulus of Elasticity:
The modulus of elasticity also known as Young's modulus measures the stiffness
of a specimen whereby the material will return to its original condition once the
load has been removed. Once the material has been stretched to the point where it
no longer returns to its original length and Hooke's Law no longer applies, the
permanent deformation takes place.

Impact Testing
The purpose of an impact test is to determine the ability of the material to absorb
energy during a collision. This energy may be used to determine the toughness,
impact strength, fracture resistance, impact resistance or fracture resistance of the
material depending on the test that was performed and the characteristic that is to
be determined. These values are important for the selection of materials that will
be used in applications that require the material to undergo very rapid loading
processes such as in vehicular collisions.

An impact test is used to observe the mechanics that a material will exhibit when it
experiences a shock loading that causes the specimen to immediately deform,
fracture or rupture completely. To perform this test, the sample is placed into a
holding fixture with the geometry and orientation determined by the type of test
that is used and then a known weight generally but not always in the shape of a
pendulum is released from a known height so that it collides with the specimen
with a sudden force. This collision between the weight and specimen generally
results in the destruction of the specimen but the transfer of energy between the
two is used to determine the fracture mechanics of the material.

Types of impact tests:

For a single impact test the three most popular types of test are: the

1) Charpy V-notch test

2) Izod test
3) Tensile Impact test.

These three tests all essentially determine the same characteristics of the material
but differ in the orientation of the test sample which causes the sample to be
stressed in different directions and involve a known weight released from a known
height colliding with the specimen in its test fixture. All of these tests are useful in
determining the impact mechanics of the test specimen.
 1) Charpy V-notch test

This impact test shows the relationship of ductile to brittle transition in absorbed
energy at a series of temperatures. Since iron and all other body-centered cubic
metals undergo a transition from ductile behavior at higher temperatures to brittle
behavior at lower temperatures, this test is required today for a number of
important steel products including steel hull plate for ships, nuclear plant pressure
vessels, forgings for electric power plant generator rotors, etc.

The test is performed using several machined bar specimens 1cm x 1cm x 5.5cm
with a 2mm deep notch at the middle of a specified flat surface – usually a “V”
notch. The specimens are tested at a series of specified temperatures (e.g. -20ºC, -
10ºC, 0ºC, +10ºC, +20ºC). Once a specimen reaches the precise temperature, it is
quickly placed into a special holder with the notch oriented vertically and toward
the origin of impact. The specimen is struck by a “tup” attached to a swinging
pendulum of specific design and weight. The specimen breaks at its notched cross-
section upon impact, and the upward swing of the pendulum is used to determine
the amount of energy absorbed (notch toughness) in the process.

2) Izod test :
The Izod impact test is a type of test that measures the relative toughness of
a material. Toughness in this context correlates to the material’s capacity to
absorb energy. The Izod and Charpy tests are the standard methods for
impact strength testing. Operators use a Pendulum impact testing machine to
perform both tests. The tests share some similarities and differences as well.
One similarity is the specimen used in the tests. Both tests use notched
specimens that get hit by a swinging pendulum striker. The specimen is
often a metal bar with a V-shaped notch.

The main difference between the two tests is the arrangement of the
specimens in the impact testing equipment. The specimen in the Pendulum
Charpy impact tester is a horizontal beam secured on both ends, while the
specimen for the Izod impact tester is cantilevered in a vertical position.

The Charpy test material has only one notch in the middle. The Izod
specimen can have up to three notches. This means that a Pendulum izod
 impact tester can test for multiple fractures in one specimen. The Izod
impact method can test for the toughness of metallic as well as plastic
materials. The Charpy method only tests for metallic materials. This multi-
purpose ability is one reason why many prefer the Izod impact testing
machine.

3) Tensile Impact test.

The tensile impact test is a tensile test with a very high deformation speed.
However, the only value determined is the impact energy consumed. The
tensile impact test frequently has a large spread of measured values. It
should consequently only be used if no break occurs in impact or notched
impact tests or if it is expressly required,

Results of the test method

Values for stress and strain such as:
Tensile impact strength of an unnotched specimen.
Tensile impact strength of a notched specimen.