22.10.

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Heaven’s Light is Our Guide

RAJSHAHI UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

(RUET)

DEPARTMENT OF GLASS & CERAMIC ENGINEERING (GCE)

An Assignment on Tensile and Hardness

testing.

Submitted By Submitted To
Name: Showvik Saha Mst. Sharmin Mostari
Roll: 1706025
Assistant Professor,
Dept. of GCE,RUET
Course No: GCE 2231 Date of Submission:
Course Name: Principles of material 01/12/2020

characterization

Tensile Testing
Tensile testing, also known as tension testing, is a
fundamental materials science and engineering test in which a
sample is subjected to a controlled tension until failure. Properties
that are directly measured via a tensile test are ultimate tensile
strength, breaking strength, maximum elongation and reduction in
area. From these measurements the following properties can also be
determined: Young's modulus, Poisson's ratio, yield strength,
and strain-hardening characteristics. Uniaxial tensile testing is the
most commonly used for obtaining the mechanical characteristics
of isotropic materials. Some materials use biaxial tensile testing.
The main difference between these testing machines being how
load is applied on the materials.

The result obtained from a tensile test is a stress/strain curve, a plot

of stress (force/unit area) versus strain (change in length/original
length), illustrated schematically in Figures1.The results of such a
test (along with the results of other tests, to be sure) are basic to
determination of the suitability of a given material for a particular
load-bearing application. In this regard the results obtained from
such a test are of great engineering significance. Tensile-test results
also provide a great deal of information relative to the fundamental
mechanisms of deformation that occur in the specimen. Coupled
with microscopic examination, tensile test results are used to
develop theories of hardening and to develop new alloys with
improved properties. Tensile tests can be used to obtain information
on the following types of property:
Elastic Properties: These are essentially those constants that
relate stresses to strains in the (usually) small strain regime where
deformation is reversible. This is the linear region in Figure 1.
Deformation is said to be reversible when a specimen or component
that has been subjected to tension returns to its original dimensions
after the load is removed. Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio (the
ratio of strain in the loading direction to strain in the transverse
direction) are typical examples of elastic properties.

Plastic Properties: Plastic properties are those that describe

the relationships between stresses and strains when the deformation
is large enough to be irreversible. Typical plastic properties are the
yield stress (the stress at which deformation become permanent),
the extent of hardening with deformation (referred to as strain
hardening), the maximum in the stress/strain plot the total
elongation, and the percent reduction in area.

Indication of the Material’s Toughness: Toughness is

the ability of a material to absorb energy in being brought to
fracture. Intuitively, toughness is manifested by the absorption of
mechanical work and is related to the area under the curve of stress
versus strain. Tensile testing is carried out at different temperatures,
loading rates, and environments; the results of these tests are widely
used in both engineering applications and scientific studies. In the
following sections, basic principles are developed, fundamentals of
tensile testing are pointed out, and references are provided to the
detailed techniques employed in tensile testing.

Competitive and Related Techniques: In addition to

the mechanical tests information can be obtained about elastic
properties through vibrational analysis, and information about
plastic properties (e.g. tensile strength) may be obtained from micro
hardness testing (Hardness testing). While such information is
limited, it can be obtained quickly and inexpensively.

Tensile Specimen Preparation

Tensile test specimens are prepared in a variety of ways depending

on the test specifications. The most commonly used specifications
are BS EN ISO 6892-1 and ASTM E8M. Most specimens use either
a round or square standard cross section with two shoulders and a
reduced section gauge length in between. The shoulders allow the
specimen to be gripped while the gauge length shows the
deformation and failure in the elastic region as it is stretched under
load. The reduced cross section gauge length of specific dimensions
assists with accurate calculation of engineering stress via load over
area calculation.

Why is Tensile Testing Performed?

Tensile testing provides details of the tensile mechanical properties
of a material. These properties can be plotted on a graph as a stress/
strain curve to show details such as the point at which the material
failed as well as providing details of properties such as the modulus
of elasticity, strain and yield strength. The main advantages of this
test are to check yield strength , tensile strength and ductile
property of material. 

Tensile testing has a variety of uses, including:

 Selecting materials for an application.

 Predicting how a material will perform under different forces.
 Determining whether the requirements of a specification,
contract or standard are met.
 Demonstrating proof of concept for a new product.
 Proving characteristics for a proposed patent.
 Providing standard quality assurance data for scientific and
engineering functions.
 Comparing technical data for different material options.
 Material testing to provide evidence for use in legal
proceedings.
 Maximum Load
 Deflection of Maximum Load
 Work at Maximum Load
 Stiffness
 Load at Break
 Deflection at Break
 Work at Break
 Chord Slope
 Stress
 Strain
 Young’s Modulus:
Drawbacks of tensile testing:
1.we can't perform test at different strain rates and different
temperatures for one sample.
2.Since it is destructive testing, the material gets wasted every time.
3.The test is mainly restricted to ductile materials.

4. It does not provide information about the material at different

temperatures.
5. It does not identify the strength of the material at differing strain
rates.
6. It does not identify any possible asymmetry in the material
strength.
7. It provides no information about the strength of the material in
different environments.
8. It provides no information about changes in the material strength
due to the process of forming the material. A casting will have
different properties than a forging or a sintered metal part.

Tensile Testing is a form of tension testing and is a destructive

engineering and materials science test whereby controlled tension is
applied to a sample until it fully fails. This is one of the most
common mechanical testing techniques. It is used to find out how
strong a material is and also how much it can be stretched before it
breaks. This test method is used to determine yield strength,
ultimate tensile strength, ductility, strain hardening characteristics,
Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio.
 Hardness Testing

Hardness is a characteristic of a material, not a fundamental

physical property. It is defined as the resistance to indentation, and
it is determined by measuring the permanent depth of the
indentation.

More simply put, when using a fixed force (load) and a given
indenter, the smaller the indentation, the harder the material.
Indentation hardness value is obtained by measuring the depth or
the area of the indentation using one of over 12 different test
methods. A hardness test is a method employed to measure the
hardness of a material. Hardness refers to a material’s resistance to
permanent indentation.
There are numerous techniques to measure hardness and each of
these tests can identify varying hardness values for a single material
under testing. Hence, hardness test as a method can be dependent
and each test's outcome needs to be labeled to determine the kind of
hardness test used.

Objectives of Hardness testing:

Hardness testing is an essential tool for distinguishing between

materials and for the analysis, development and improvement of
materials and technologies in the context of basic research
(materials science, materials engineering, materials diagnostics).

It involves the determination of characteristic values (hardness

values) that are of crucial importance for assessing the use of
materials in industry (suitability of a material for a technically
relevant part), their acceptance during inspections as part of quality
assurance (incoming goods and outgoing goods inspections), for
distinguishing between materials (e.g. in the case of material
confusion) and for clarification of cases of damage (damage
analysis)

Hardness testing is used for two general characterizations:

1.Material Characteristics:
• Test to check material
• Test hardenability
• Test to confirm process 
• Can be used to predict Tensile strength

2. Functionality:
• Test to confirm ability to function as designed.
• Wear Resistance
• Toughness
• Resistance to impact

Hardness Testing Considerations:

 The following sample characteristics should be consider prior

to selecting the hardness testing method to use:

 The test force applied to the indenter

 The length of time that the indenter remains in the material
 The indenter geometry
 The workpiece geometry
 The length of time that the indenter remains in the material
 The choice of test method
 The test force applied to the indenter
 Material
 Sample Size
 Thickness
 Scale
 Shape of sample, round, cylindrical, flat, irregular
 Gage
How can hardness be defined?
Hardness is a measure of how mechanically resistant a material
(test work piece) is to the mechanical penetration of another, harder
body (indenter).The hardest natural material is diamond. Diamond
is therefore used as an indenter (industrial diamond).

The definition of hardness differs from that of strength, which

describes the resistance of a material to deformation and separation.

Principles of hardness testing:

The basic principles of hardness testing are given below:

• An indenter is forced into the surface

• Test piece will yield
• Force is removed, some plastic recovery
• Hardness value is calculated by the amount of permanent
deformation or plastic flow of the material observed
• Deformation is quantified by the area or the depth of the
indentation
• Hardness values can be directly compared only if the same
test is used, since the geometry of the indenter and force
applied influence the outcome of the test
• Each type of hardness test conducted, a different equation is
used
Understanding The Different Types Of
Hardness Tests

The ability of a material to resist permanent indentation is known as

hardness. It is an empirical test, rather than material property. In
order to define different hardness values for the same piece of
material, there are several types of hardness tests. The outcome of
each test should have a label identifying the method used, as it is
dependent on it. There is no intrinsic significance of hardness value
or number, hence it cannot be used directly like tensile test value.
The value is only useful for comparing different treatments or
materials.

Testing is widely employed for process control and inspection, and

the outcome is used in estimating mechanical properties like tensile
strength. It is usually done using testing machines fitted with an
indenter that is enforced into test matter over a period of time. The
indentor’s shape varies by the hardness test type, and includes
pyramid, ball and cone shapes. Each machine also makes use of
different load or force application system.

Rockwell Hardness Test

There is also a Superficial Rockwell, along with a Rockwell
Hardness Test. For each individual test, a little load is forced to
either a steel ball or diamond cone indenter located on the surface
of the test material to set up a zero reference point. This is followed
by applying the main load for a specific period of time, with the
minor load applied on releasing. The hardness number is the
variation in deepness between the shift due to major load and the
zero reference position.

The selection of an indenter depends on the features of the test

material. In comparison to Superficial Rockwell, the Rockwell Test
applies bigger load values, although both of them offer three load
options that are major. Over 30 different scales are employed
between Superficial Rockwell and Rockwell testing, because of
various combinations and choices of major loads, indenters and
tests.
Rockwell hardness is determined by measuring the distance
traveled by an indenter when a heavy load is applied to a heat
treated part.

Brinell Hardness Test

During this test, an accurately controlled force is maintained when
an indenter, generally a carbide ball, is forced into the test model
for a specific period of time. Upon removal, it leaves an encircling
indentation, the measurement of which is taken to calculate material
hardness as per the formula.

Knoop Hardness Test

This Micro hardness Test is employed on miniature material feature
that cannot be put on test by other methods. It uses a testing load of
1 Kg or less. Just like the Brinell hardness test, the Knoop is
performed by applying force to an indenter in a rhombus-shape
over a period of time. Meticulous measurement of the impression is
done, and is employed alongside test load for calculation of value
on the scale.

Vickers Hardness Test

With a maximum test load of 50 kg, the Vickers Hardness Test can
be performed on both the macro and micro hardness scales. This
sort of test is done by putting controlled force to an indenter over a
period of time, which is a square-shaped diamond pyramid. The test
load and impression measurement are employed with the required
formula for calculating Vickers hardness value. Like Knoop and
Brinell, this test has a scale that takes care of the entire range.
Benefits of the hardness testing
There are many different benefits of the hardness testing; the
benefits and the advantages of the hardness testing of the materials
will depend on the properties of the material and the types of the
tester.
If the test is performed for quality assurance then it is beneficial for
the company, and if the test is performed in the school lab then it is
for the knowledge of the students. So the benefit of the testing
depends on the nature and purpose of the test. Some of the common
advantages of hardness testing are described below.

 The hardness of the material will determine its strength and

resistance to bending and deforming.
 Hardness testing will ensure the quality of the material.
 Hardness testing is used for making a combination of different
materials.
 Hardness testing is done to know the physical properties of
the different materials used in production.
 Through hardness testing, you will estimate the life of a
particular product.
 The hardness test will show the durability of the materials or
products.
 Through hardness testing you can figure out the hard and soft
materials.

Disadvantages of different types of

hardness testing method:

 A disadvantage of the Rockwell process is the relatively small

depth range. Even small indentations in the material can lead
 to significant deviations in the indentation depth and thus in
the hardness value. In addition, it is particularly difficult to
differentiate between materials with high hardness values due
to the small differences in depth.
 The main disadvantage of Brinell test is that it is not suitable
for small size objects due to large indentor impression.
 Slightly inaccurate hardness measurement while testing hard
objects as ball indentor deforms.
 Not suitable for thin objects due to deep penetration.
 This test can only perform on the flat surfaces.
 The Brinell hardness test is slow thus time-consuming.
 Chances of human error during measurements.
 The Components life may reduce because of high load and
large impressions.

Conclusion:

Finally, it can be said that if the material type is known hardness

testing is a simple way to verify whether the material is heat treated
or not. Hardness testers such as Rockwell, Brinell, Vickers can be
useful to check metals for actual hardness.

Hardness tests are generally considered non-destructive, it does

leave a little pit in the surface; therefore it should not be used on
sealing surfaces, fatigue critical parts, load bearing areas etc.,
components which will be used in critical applications. These
hardness tests provides a convenient means for determining within
reasonable limits the tensile strength of steel. It has several
limitations in that it is not suitable for very soft or very hard
materials.