Understanding Engineering Materials through Testing

Introduction

Understanding the importance of material testing is crucial for freshly certified engineers operating
within the field of engineering. This procedure enables the examination and understanding of the
qualities and attributes of diverse materials, so serving as a crucial factor in making well-informed
choices throughout the process of material selection.

Part 1

A. Testing Techniques
I. Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS) Test
 Overview

The UTS test is a fundamental evaluation method used to analyse the mechanical properties of a
material when subjected to stress. The determination of the maximum stress a material can endure
prior to experiencing fracture is a significant factor.

 Test Procedure
a. Specimen Preparation

A standardized sample, often in the form of a cylindrical bar, is carefully machined from the material.
The specimen is polished to ensure uniformity.

b. Application of Force

One end of the specimen is securely clamped, while the other end is subjected to an axial pulling
force. The force is applied at a controlled and uniform rate.

 Forces/Loads Applied

Tensile forces are employed, resulting in the material experiencing axial stress and strain.

 Obtaining/Processing Results

During the application of force, the testing machine measures and records both the force exerted
and the resulting deformation (strain) of the material. The data is then used in the construction of a
stress-strain curve.

 Determined Material Properties

The Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS): It is the point observed on the stress strain graph representing
the stress that a material can endure before it breaks.

Yield Strength: It is a point at which the material begins to change shape due, to stress. It's a
measure of how the material can regain its shape once the stress is removed.

Elongation and Reduction in Area: This measurement offer information, about the flexibility of a
material, which indicates its ability to withstand deformation before breaking.

Young's Modulus (Modulus of Elasticity): This metric quantifies the rigidity of a substance or its
capacity to undergo deformation when subjected to a load.

II. Torsion Test

 Overview

The torsion test is a method used to evaluate the mechanical behavior of materials when subjected
to rotational or twisting forces.

 Test Procedure
a. Specimen Preparation

A cylindrical or prismatic specimen with standardized dimensions is prepared.

b. Application of Force

One end of the specimen is held stationary, while the other end is twisted by applying a torque. Both
the twist angle and the applied torque are measured.

 Forces/Loads Applied

When force is exerted, it leads to the development of shear stresses within the sample.

 Obtaining/Processing Results

The collected data includes information about the torque applied and the resulting angle of twist.
These measurements are then used to calculate the stress and strain experienced by the material.

 Determined Material Properties

Shear Strength: This represents the level of shear stress that a material is able to withstand before it
reaches its breaking point or experiences deformation.

Shear Modulus (Modulus of Rigidity): It is a characteristic that measures how well a material can
withstand deformation.
 III. Fatigue Test
 Overview

The fatigue test is a method used to assess the response of a material when subjected to repetitive
or cyclic loads.

 Test Procedure
a. Specimen Preparation

A cylindrical specimen with a smooth surface is often used.

b. Application of Force

The sample undergoes a loading pattern, where it goes through cycles of being stretched and
compressed.

 Forces/Loads Applied

Cyclic loads induce fluctuating stresses within the specimen.

 Obtaining/Processing Results

The test assesses the number of cycles a material can endure before it fails along with the
corresponding levels of stress experienced during each cycle. This information is visually depicted on
a fatigue curve.

 Determined Material Properties

Fatigue Strength: The fatigue strength refers to the upper limit of cyclic stress amplitude that a
material may endure without experiencing failure.

Endurance Limit: The stress level below which the material can endure an infinite number of cycles.

IV. Creep Test

 Overview

The Creep Test is a method used to evaluate the deformation characteristics of a material under
continual load or stress conditions at increasing temperatures. The aspect has significant importance
in scenarios where materials are subjected to high temperatures for prolonged durations, such as in
power generation facilities and aeronautical apparatus.

 Test Procedure
a. Specimen Preparation
A sample of the material is prepared in a specific shape, often a cylindrical or prismatic form.

b. Application of Force

The specimen is loaded with a constant stress in an environment with elevated temperatures.

Measurements of deformation are taken at regular intervals over an extended period.

 Forces/Loads Applied

The application of constant stress is often carried out in conditions of high temperatures.

 Obtaining/Processing Results

The deformation of the specimen over time is recorded. This information is then used to study how
the material behaves when subjected to high temperature loads.

 Determined Material Properties

Creep Rate: It is the rate at which the material undergoes deformation over time under constant
stress and elevated temperatures.

Creep Strength: It indicates the maximum stress a material can withstand before experiencing
deformation over a period.

V. Izod Impact Test

 Overview

It is used to assess the capacity of a material to endure forceful impacts. This assessment holds
importance for materials utilized in industries, like automotive and construction where they may
encounter impact situations.

 Test Procedure
a. Specimen Preparation

A notched sample of the material is prepared, in the form of a standardized bar.

b. Application of Force

The specimen is fixed in a machine, and a pendulum is released to strike the specimen.

The energy absorbed by the specimen during fracture is measured.

 Forces/Loads Applied

Sudden impact force is applied to the specimen.

  Obtaining/Processing Results

The energy absorbed by the specimen is recorded and the data is used to evaluate the material's
toughness and its ability to absorb energy under high-impact conditions.

 Determined Material Properties

Impact Energy: This value indicates the capacity of a material to absorb energy before it fractures,
hence offering valuable insights into its resistance to abrupt impacts.

Toughness: This property characterizes the ability of a material to withstand fracture when
subjected to impact loads.

VI. Brinell Hardness Test

 Overview

It is a method used to assess how well a material can withstand being pressed or deformed by a
force. This characteristic is crucial in situations where the ability to resist wear and deformation is
extremely important.

 Test Procedure
a. Specimen Preparation

The materials surface undergoes thorough Polishing to guarantee uniformity.

b. Application of Force

A known force is applied to the surface of the specimen using an indenter for a duration of time. The
resulting indentation is then measured to determine its diameter.

 Forces/Loads Applied

The specimen is subjected to a static, compressive force.

 Obtaining/Processing Results

The diameter of the indentation is measured using a microscope. This data along with the applied
force is used to calculate the Brinell Hardness Number.

 Determined Material Properties

Brinell Hardness Number: It is a measure that quantifies the ability of a material to resist
indentation.

Hardness: Indicates the material's ability to resist deformation or penetration.

 B. importance of using the results frommaterial tests
1. Reliability and Safety Assurance

The use of materials in aircraft engineering without undergoing thorough testing procedures might
result in severe breakdowns of vital components over the course of flight, potentially leading to
disastrous consequences. The process of material testing is crucial in verifying the capacity of
selected materials to endure harsh environmental conditions, hence ensuring the utmost levels of
safety and dependability.

2. Meeting Regulatory Standards

Medical equipment is required to conform to stringent biocompatibility and sterilization criteria. In

the absence of adequate testing, it is plausible that a substance may fail to satisfy the prescribed
regulatory standards, hence giving rise to significant legal and ethical dilemmas.

3. Optimizing Performance

In the field of automobile engineering, the act of choosing a material without possessing a
comprehensive grasp of its performance characteristics under different loads may lead to adverse
consequences such as diminished fuel economy, degraded handling capabilities, or even structural
integrity failure. Material tests are used to choose materials that maximize performance.

4. Predicting Long-term Behavior

In the field of civil engineering, it is essential for materials used in infrastructure projects to possess
the ability to withstand the effects of environmental conditions over extended periods of time.
Material tests, particularly those pertaining to creep and corrosion, provide valuable insights into the
long-term performance of materials.

5. Minimizing Cost and Waste

One way to reduce costs and waste is by implementing efficient processes and practices. For
instance, optimizing production methods may help minimize the amount of raw materials and
resources used, hence reducing waste and lowering expenses. Within the realm of manufacturing,
the act of choosing a suboptimal material has the potential to result in elevated rates of rejection,
excessive material wastage, and amplified production expenditures. The use of rigorous testing
procedures aids in the selection of materials that effectively mitigate these inefficiencies.

6. Enhancing Product Durability

Consumer electronics undergo a range of challenges during their lives. In the absence of
comprehensive testing procedures, it is plausible that materials may not possess the necessary
durability to last the demanding conditions of regular use, hence leading to frequent instances of
malfunction and subsequently dissatisfied clientele.

7. Avoiding Liability and Reputational Damage

In the event of a material's premature failure resulting from insufficient testing, there is a potential
for significant financial burdens associated with product recalls, litigation, and substantial harm to a
company's standing in the public eye.

8. Tailoring Materials to Specific Applications

The process of testing aids in the selection or development of materials that adhere to rigorous
criteria.

9. Facilitating Materials Innovation

In the field of developing technologies, such as electric cars, there is a continuous development of
novel materials. The use of thorough testing procedures empowers engineers with the assurance to
effectively incorporate these pioneering materials into their design frameworks.

10. Ensuring Compatibility with Manufacturing Processes

The selection of a material that has inherent difficulties in terms of machinability or formability
might result in the occurrence of manufacturing delays and a subsequent rise in costs. Material tests
are conducted to verify the compatibility of materials with production processes.

11. Optimizing for Environmental Sustainability

In light of an increasing focus on sustainability, the process of material testing plays a pivotal role in
the identification and selection of environmentally friendly alternatives that effectively mitigate
adverse effects on the environment.

12. Adapting to Changing Conditions

In the context of renewable energy applications, several environmental conditions are encountered
by materials. Material testing are conducted to guarantee that selected materials has the ability to
endure these changes over an extended period.

13. Meeting Customer Expectations

Materials with distinct visual and tactile attributes are often necessary for the production of luxury
goods. Thorough testing procedures are used to verify that the selected materials adhere to the
high-quality requirements.

The use of material test results is crucial in facilitating well-informed engineering decision-making.
Ensuring the safety and dependability of goods not only contributes to cost-effectiveness and
efficiency, but also promotes environmentally sensitive solutions. The implementation of this
principle is considered fundamental in the field of ethical engineering among many sectors.

C. Non-Destructive Inspection (NDI) processes

I. Dye Penetrant Inspection/Testing
 Overview

The technique of Dye Penetrant Inspection, is a prevalent approach used for surface examination to
identify flaws that extend through the surface of impermeable materials.

 Test Procedure
a. Preparation

The surface is thoroughly cleaned to eliminate any impurities that might potentially disrupt the
inspection procedure.

b. Application of Penetrant

A pigmented liquid penetrant (dye) is administered onto the surface. A specific duration is allocated
to enable the substance to permeate any imperfections present on the surface.

c. Dwell Time and Penetration

The penetrant remains on the surface for a certain duration, known as the dwell time, in order to
provide adequate infiltration into any possible flaws.

d. Removal of Excess Penetrant

The surface is carefully cleaned to remove any excess penetrant.

e. Application of Developer

A white, powdery developer is applied to the surface. This process facilitates the extraction of
penetrant substances from surface imperfections, therefore making them visible.

 Obtaining/Interpreting Results
Defects manifest as conspicuously pigmented hints contrasting the developer-generated white
backdrop. The dimensions and configuration of the signals may provide valuable information about
the characteristics of the issue.

 Diagnostic Applications

The primary purpose of using NDI is to identify surface cracks, porosity, laps, and seams in various
materials.

 Advantages

Demonstrates a high level of sensitivity in detecting surface-breaking flaws.

This technique exhibits versatility in its applicability to a diverse array of non-porous materials.

This approach is characterized by its relative simplicity and cost-effectiveness.

 Disadvantages

Limited to surface defects.

Requires a clean and dry surface for accurate results.

 Application

NDPI is often used in the aerospace industry to inspect components like turbine blades, where even
minute surface defects can have a significant impact on performance and safety.

II. Magnetic Particle Inspection/Testing

 Overview

Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI) is a widely used technique for identifying surface and subsurface
flaws in ferromagnetic materials.

 Test Procedure
a. Magnetization

The material undergoes magnetization by the application of a magnetic field. This can be
accomplished by subjecting the material to an electric current or using a magnetic yoke.

b. Application of Magnetic Particles

Finely ground magnetic particles (iron filings) are applied to the surface. These particles are attracted
to areas of magnetic flux leakage.
 c. Indication of Defects

Material defects result in the disruption of the magnetic field, leading to the aggregation of magnetic
particles around the defects, hence generating observable manifestations.

 Obtaining/Interpreting Results

Defects are seen by the aggregation of magnetic particles, resulting in the formation of patterns on
the surface. Subsequently, an analysis is conducted on these patterns in order to assess the
characteristics of the faults, including their dimensions, configuration, and spatial distribution.

 Diagnostic Applications

Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI) is mostly used for the identification of surface and subsurface
irregularities, such as cracks, laps, seams, and inclusions, in materials exhibiting ferromagnetic
properties.

 Advantages

Detects both surface and near-surface defects.

Can inspect large areas quickly.

No special surface preparation required.

 Disadvantages**:

Limited to ferromagnetic materials.

Requires magnetization equipment.

 Application

MPI is widely used in the automotive industry to inspect critical components like crankshafts and
axles for hidden defects.

III. Ultrasonic Inspection/Testing

 Overview

Ultrasonic Inspection is a non-destructive testing technique that utilizes high-frequency sound waves
to identify internal flaws or irregularities inside various materials.

 Test Procedure:
a. Generation of Ultrasonic Waves
A transducer generates high-frequency sound waves, which travel through the material.

b. Detection of Echoes

Any change in material density or the presence of a defect causes the sound waves to reflect back to
the transducer as echoes.

c. Interpretation of Echoes

The duration of the echo's return is quantified, yielding insights into the characteristics and extent of
the anomaly.

 Obtaining/Interpreting Results

The collected data is graphically shown on an oscilloscope or subjected to analysis using dedicated
software. The technician analyzes the outcomes by considering the time it takes for the ultrasonic
waves to travel and the strength of the echoes that are received.

 Diagnostic Applications

Ultrasonic Inspection is used as a diagnostic technique for the identification of internal anomalies,
including voids, fractures, inclusions, and delamination, inside a range of materials.

 Advantages

Detects internal defects without destroying the material.

Provides depth information about defects.

Highly versatile and applicable to a wide range of materials.

 Disadvantages

Requires skilled technicians for accurate interpretation.

Limited to relatively homogeneous materials.

 Application

Used in the oil and gas industry is the utilization of ultrasonic testing as a means to examine welds in
pipelines for the purpose of identifying interior flaws, hence guaranteeing their structural soundness
and overall safety.

IV. Radiography Inspection/Testing

 Overview
Radiography Inspection is a non-destructive testing technique that utilizes X-rays or gamma rays to
examine the interior composition of a material in order to identify concealed flaws.

 Test Procedure
a. Generation of X-rays/Gamma Rays

X-ray or gamma ray sources emit high-energy photons through the material.

b. Detection of Radiation

The transmission of radiation is captured by a detector positioned on the opposing side of the
material.

c. Formation of Radiographic Image

The intensity of the transmitted radiation is recorded, producing an image that highlights variations
in material density.

 Obtaining/Interpreting Results

The radiographic image is carefully examined to check for any abnormalities, like gaps, foreign
objects or cracks. We then analyze the size, shape and location of these irregularities to determine
how they may affect the strength and stability of the material.

 Diagnostic Applications

It is used for the purpose of diagnosing internal faults, inclusions, and changes in thickness inside a
wide range of materials.

 Advantages

Provides detailed internal images of the material.

Effective for a wide range of material thicknesses.

Non-contact and non-destructive.

 Disadvantages

Requires specialized equipment and trained technicians.

Exposure to ionizing radiation requires strict safety measures.

 Application
It is used in the construction sector, where it is used for the purpose of inspecting welds in structural
components such as steel beams and columns. This utilization of radiography serves to verify the
structural integrity of these components and ascertain their compliance with established safety
requirements.

Part 2

A. Analysis of data from Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS) tests

To analyze the data collected from the experiments on 6061 T6 Aluminium Alloy and Polycarbonate
concerning Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS) it is crucial to begin by examining the stress strain graphs
provided. From these graphs we will determine the values of both Ultimate Tensile Strength and
Elastic (Youngs) Modulus for each material.

I. 6061-T6 Aluminium Alloy

 Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS)

This is the maximum stress that the material can withstand before failure. It is the highest point on
the stress-strain curve. Upon analyzing the graph depicting the mechanical properties of 6061-T6
Aluminium Alloy, it is evident that the stress magnitude attains its peak value in the vicinity of a
strain level of 0.09. This value corresponds to an Ultimate Tensile Strength of around 375MPa.sicne
the UTS for the three Aluminium is very close, 375MPa is taken as the average. The theoretical UTS is
310MPa.

The observed ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of about 375MPa exceeds the expected theoretical
range. This is in contrast to the observed behavior of the tested material, which aligns consistently
with the anticipated characteristics of the 6061-T6 Aluminium Alloy curve.

Discrepancies may be attributed to several variables, including but not limited to sample variance,
manufacturing methods, or testing circumstances.

 Elastic (Young's) Modulus

Slope=(350-25)/(0.006-0)=54Gpa

It is a measure of a material's stiffness or its ability to deform elastically when subjected to a given
load. It is the slope of the initial linear portion of the stress-strain curve. Through careful
examination of the first linear segment shown on the graph, an approximate estimation of the
Young's Modulus may be deduced to be around 54GPa. While the theoretical Young's Modulus is
68.9GPa.
The variation between the theoretical value of 68.9GPa and the experimental value of 54GPa for
Young's Modulus of 6061-T6 Aluminium Alloy can be attributed to several factors:

 Theoretical models often make the assumption of an idealized and homogenous

microstructure. In reality, the material may exhibit certain microstructural heterogeneities,
such as grain boundaries, inclusions, or flaws. These factors have the potential to impact the
overall stiffness.
 The actual composition of the alloy may exhibit slight variations in comparison to the
theoretical composition assumed in the models. Slight deviations in the composition of
alloying elements may result in discernible disparities in the characteristics of the material.
 The aluminium alloy 6061-T6 undergoes a process of heat treatment. The mechanical
characteristics of a material, namely Young's Modulus, may be affected by many factors in
the heat treatment process, such as variations in temperature, duration, and quenching rate.
 Minor fluctuations in experimental circumstances, such as temperature, humidity, and
loading rate, have the potential to impact the observed Young's Modulus. These
requirements may not always correspond precisely with the assumptions made in
theoretical models.
II. Polycarbonate
 Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS)

Upon analyzing the graph pertaining to Polycarbonate, it becomes evident that the stress attains its
greatest value at different strain level for the three Polycarbonates.

Polycarbonate 1- 60 MPa

Polycarbonate 2 - 57 MPa

Polycarbonate 3 – 50 MPa

Average UTS – 55.6 MPa

The theoretical UTS is 66MPa

Reasons for variations

 Theoretical models are constructed using idealized assumptions on the homogeneity of

materials and the circumstances under which they are processed. Manufacturing procedures
in practical applications have the potential to generate variances that may impact the
strength of materials.
  Real-world materials may include impurities or inclusions that are not considered in
theoretical models. The presence of impurities may have a detrimental effect on the
mechanical properties and strength of the material.
 Theoretical models often make the assumption of static circumstances at room
temperature. The behavior and ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of a material may be
influenced by several factors such as strain rates and temperatures in practical applications.
 Discrepancies between theoretical and actual ultimate tensile strength (UTS) values may
arise due to disparities in material quality, such as changes in molecular weight.
 Theoretical models may not always include the occurrence of localized stress concentrations
in actual components, which might arise from geometric characteristics such as notches or
holes.
 Elastic (Young's) Modulus

Slope= (30-5)/ (0.02-0) =1.25GPa

Based on an examination of the linear region of the Polycarbonate graph, an approximate estimation
of the Young's Modulus is determined to be around 1.25GPa, while the theoretical Young's modulus
is 2.4GPa.

Reasons for variations

 Polycarbonate is a polymer that exhibits a combination of amorphous and crystalline

characteristics. The distribution and configuration of these zones may exhibit variability,
hence impacting the overall stiffness of the material.
 Theoretical models often rely on predetermined thermal histories and processing
circumstances. Differences in the production process may result in variations in these
circumstances, which in turn can give rise to disparities in the stiffness of the material.
 The characteristics of polycarbonate may be adjusted with the use of crosslinking agents.
Differences in the extent of crosslinking may result in variations in Young's Modulus.
 The orientation of polymer molecules has the potential to impact the determined Young's
Modulus. Differences may arise as a result of variations in sample orientation throughout
the processing and testing stages.
B. Glass Fibre Reinforced Polymer (GFRP)

Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer (GFRP) is a type of material that combines a polymer matrix, with
glass fibers for added reinforcement. It finds application across industries owing to its remarkable
mechanical characteristics, including an excellent balance between strength and weight resistance,
to corrosion and long-lasting durability.

 Ultimate tensile strength (UTS)

The measured ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of the glass fiber reinforced polymer (GFRP) was found
to be 280 MPa. It is worth noting that this value falls outside the anticipated range of strengths, for
glass fibers, which typically range from 1000 MPa to 3400 MPa. This significant difference in UTS
between the value and the expected range raises questions, about the materials performance.

Reasons

 The impact of matrix material on a system. Glass fibers are often included inside a polymer
matrix in the case of Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer (GFRP). The ultimate tensile strength
(UTS) of the composite is impacted by both the characteristics of the glass fibers and the
mechanical properties of the polymer matrix. The matrix material has the potential to
impose constraints on the overall strength characteristics of the composite material.
 The arrangement and positioning of fibers have an impact on materials science. The strength
of the composite can be influenced by how the glass fibers are oriented and aligned. Any
gaps or interruptions in the fiber distribution within the material may result in a reduction in
its strength.
 The manufacturing technique employed can have an impact on the properties of GFRP. The
ultimate strength of the composite can be affected by factors, such, as curing conditions,
resin impregnation and curing temperatures.
 Elastic Modulus

From the graph,

Slope= (200-100)/ (0.02-0.01) =10GPa.

Therefore, the experimental Elastic Modulus is 10GPa ad the theoretical Elastic Modulus is 29 to
84GPa. The experimental Elastic Modulus for GFRP is considerably lower than the theoretical range
for glass fibers.

Reasons

 The evaluation of the binding strength between glass fibers and the polymer matrix plays a
pivotal role in determining the overall stiffness of the composite material. Insufficient
bonding or inadequate contact at the interface may result in a reduced Elastic Modulus.
  The total stiffness of a composite may be influenced by the alignment and orientation of its
fibers. The Elastic Modulus may experience a decrease if the fibers exhibit imperfect
alignment or if there are irregularities in the distribution of fibers.
 Discrepancies in testing methodologies, specimen preparation, and ambient circumstances
during experimentation may result in disparities in the measured mechanical characteristics.

Although the measured Elastic Modulus of GFRP falls below the theoretical range for glass fibers, it is
crucial to acknowledge that this value remains within a range of stiffness that is deemed appropriate
for several technical applications.

The disparity seen between the measured and predicted values of the Elastic Modulus serves to
underscore the intricate interaction between the reinforcing fibers and the encompassing polymer
matrix in composite materials such as Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer (GFRP). The characteristics of
the composite material are impacted by a confluence of elements, including the selection of
materials, the method of manufacture, and the circumstances under which testing is conducted.

Carbon Fibre Reinforced Polymer (CFRP)

Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) is a type of material made by combining carbon fibers with
a polymer matrix. It finds application, across industries because of its remarkable mechanical
characteristics.

 Ultimate tensile strength (UTS)

The ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) may be approximated
by analyzing the data shown in the graph. The estimated value is around 630MPa. The theoretical
Ultimate tensile strength (UTS) is 3GPa. The experimental UTS for CFRP is considerably lower than
the theoretical value for carbon fibers.

Reasons

 The total strength of a composite may be influenced by the orientation and alignment of the
carbon fibers inside it. A decrease in ultimate tensile strength (UTS) may occur when the
fibers exhibit imperfect alignment or irregularities in their distribution.
 The mechanical characteristics of carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) may be influenced
by the manufacturing technique used. The ultimate strength of the composite may be
influenced by several factors, including curing conditions, resin impregnation, and curing
temperatures.
  Differences in apparent mechanical characteristics might arise due to variations in testing
methodologies, sample preparation, and ambient variables throughout the testing process.

The disparity discovered between the experimentally determined ultimate tensile strength (UTS)
values and the theoretically predicted UTS values underscores the intricate characteristics inherent
in composite materials such as carbon fiber reinforced polymers (CFRP). The characteristics of the
composite material are impacted by a confluence of elements, including the selection of materials,
the manufacturing method used, and the circumstances under which testing is conducted. The
comprehension and optimization of these aspects are of utmost importance in attaining the
intended mechanical characteristics in composite materials.

 Elastic Modulus

From the graph,

Slope= (500-200)/ (0.012-0.006) =50GPa.

Therefore, the experimental Elastic Modulus is 50GPa. The theoretical Elastic Modulus rages from
200 to 500GPa. The experimental Elastic Modulus observed for Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer
(CFRP) at 50GPa exhibits a notable disparity when compared to the theoretical range often
associated with carbon fibers, which falls between 200GPa and 500GPa.

Reasons

 The evaluation of the bond strength between carbon fibers and the polymer matrix plays a
pivotal role in determining the overall stiffness of the composite material. A decrease in the
Elastic Modulus might occur as a result of weak bonding or inadequate contact at the
interface.
 The total stiffness of a composite may be influenced by the orientation and alignment of the
carbon fibers inside it. A decrease in Elastic Modulus may occur when the fibers exhibit
imperfect alignment or irregularities in their dispersion.
 The mechanical characteristics of carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) may be influenced
by the manufacturing technique used. The ultimate rigidity of the composite may be
influenced by several factors, including curing conditions, resin impregnation, and curing
temperatures.

The disparity discovered between the experimentally determined Elastic Modulus values and the
theoretically predicted values underscores the intricate characteristics inherent in composite
materials such as Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer (CFRP). The characteristics of the composite
material are impacted by a variety of elements, which include the selection of materials, the method
of manufacture, and the circumstances under which testing is conducted.

C. mortar brick
 Ultimate Compressive Strength

The Ultimate Compressive Strength refers to the highest level of stress that a material is capable of
enduring when subjected to compression, prior to experiencing failure. The determination of the
Ultimate Compressive Strength in the given graph involves finding the specific point at which the
stress-strain curve deviates from its linear trend and starts a downward trajectory. This is the point
at which the material has achieved its maximal compressive strength.

From the graph the Ultimate Compressive Strength can be obtained. The compressive stress of
different curves ranges from 4MPa to 7MPa. This indicates that the mortar brick samples tested
have Ultimate Compressive Strengths within this range.

The Ultimate Compressive Strength of mortar brick is commonly characterized by theoretical values
ranging from 2 to 10 MPa. These values are influenced by several factors such as the composition of
the mortar, the curing process, and the circumstances in which testing is conducted.

In this particular instance, the experimental values found, ranging from 4 MPa to 7 MPa, align with
the expected range of theoretical values. This finding indicates that the compressive strengths of the
mortar brick samples align with the anticipated values.

The similarity between experimental and theoretical values provides empirical evidence supporting
the validity of the theoretical models used to predict the behavior of the material. This suggests that
these models provide precise predictions of the compressive strength of the material. The
assessment of material properties and its associated confidence.

The close agreement between experimental and theoretical values instills a sense of confidence in
the material properties, so enabling engineers and researchers to make well-informed judgements
about the utilization of mortar brick in many applications.

 Elastic Modulus

From the graph,

Slope= (1.8-0)/ (0.0005-0) =3.6GPa.

Therefore, the experimental elastic modulus is 3.6GPa. The theoretical Elastic Modulus ranges from
3.5GPa to 34GPa. The experimental value of 3.6GPa aligns well with the expected range of 3.5GPa to
34GPa, as predicted by theoretical calculations. This finding suggests that the observed behavior of
the Mortar Brick, as determined by empirical testing, closely corresponds to the predictions stated
by theoretical models.

The close agreement between the experimental and theoretical values provides empirical support
for the validity of the theoretical frameworks used in forecasting the behavior of the material. This
suggests that these models provide precise assessments of the stiffness of the material.

The observation that the experimental value falls within the theoretical range creates a sense of
confidence about the material qualities. The acquisition of this knowledge has significant importance
for engineers and builders in the process of material selection for building endeavors.

The close agreement seen between the experimental and theoretical values suggests that the use of
Mortar Brick in a suitable manner is very likely to provide a significant contribution to the structural
robustness and stability of a masonry construction.

References
1. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/materials-science/carbon-fiber-properties
2. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9331547/#
3. https://www.ajer.org/papers/rase-2013/volume-1/B120130611.pdf
4. https://www.mdpi.com/2075-5309/10/5/84
5. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2352710223017412
6. https://housing.com/news/compressive-strength-of-bricks-meaning-assessment-and-how-
to-test/#
7. https://www.princeton.edu/~maelabs/mae324/glos324/polycarbonate.htm#
8. https://www.acplasticsinc.com/informationcenter/r/tensile-strength-of-polycarbonate
9. https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Typical-stress-strain-curve-of-an-amorphous-polymer-
Reprinted-with-permission-from-23_fig3_358644161
10. https://www.usna.edu/NAOE/_files/documents/Courses/EN380/Course_Notes/
Ch10_Deformation.pdf
11. https://www.thomasnet.com/articles/metals-metal-products/6061-aluminum/
12. https://fractory.com/ultimate-tensile-strength/#:~:text=Ultimate%20Tensile%20Strength
%20on%20the,load%20it%20can%20handle%20safely.