Fracture Toughness and

Fatigue in Engineering
Materials
 Importance of Studying Fracture Toughness and
Fatigue
● Fracture Toughness and Fatigue are fundamental properties that
impact the safety and performance of engineering materials.

● Understanding Fracture Toughness helps us predict how materials

respond to cracks and defects, ensuring structural integrity.

● Knowledge of Fatigue properties is crucial for designing

components that can withstand repeated loading over time.

● By studying these properties, we enhance product reliability,

reduce the risk of catastrophic failures, and extend the lifespan of
 Fracture
● Fracture refers to the separation of a material into two
or more pieces due to the application of stress.

● This stress can be static (constant or slowly changing)

and at low temperatures compared to the material's
melting point. Fracture can also occur due to fatigue
(cyclic stresses) and creep (time-dependent
deformation at high temperatures).
 Ductile Fracture
(a) Cup and-cone fracture in
● Ductile materials can undergo aluminum.
substantial plastic deformation
before fracturing. This type of
fracture is characterized by slow
crack propagation and
significant energy absorption. It
gives warning signs before
failure, making it preferred in
many situations.
 Brittle Fracture
● A brittle fracture is a breakage
or cracking of a material into
discernible parts, from which
no deformation can be
identified (a clean break). It is
characterized by rapid crack
propagation with low energy
release and without significant
plastic deformation.
 Preview of Key Testing Methods
Destructive
Impact Testing Testing Fatigue Testing

01 02 03
Impact Testing

This method evaluates a material's

ability to absorb energy during
sudden, high-stress events. Think
of it as assessing how well a
material can withstand a sudden
shock or impact.
Destructive Testing

This approach involves applying

controlled loads to determine
various material properties and
behaviors. It's called 'destructive'
because it often leads to the
specimen's failure, providing
valuable insights into its
characteristics.
Fatigue Testing

This method assesses how

materials endure cyclic loading,
simulating the real-world
conditions where materials face
repetitive stress. It's a key tool for
predicting a material's fatigue life
and ensuring long-term reliability.
 What is
FRACTURE
TOUGHNESS?
 Fracture Toughness
Fracture toughness is a measure of a
material's resistance to crack propagation or
fracture under the application of stress. It
quantifies the energy required to initiate and
propagate a crack through a material.
 Fracture Toughness
It is a very important material property since
the occurrence of flaws is not completely
avoidable in the processing, fabrication, or
service of a material/component. Flaws may
appear as cracks, voids, metallurgical inclusions,
weld defects, design discontinuities, or some
combination thereof.
 Fracture Toughness
It is a vital parameter in engineering, as it directly
relates to the structural integrity and safety of
components and structures. Materials with high fracture
toughness can withstand mechanical stresses and
loading, making them suitable for demanding
applications. Engineers rely on fracture toughness data to
make informed decisions about material selection,
design, and maintenance to ensure the long-term
reliability of engineered systems.
 Fracture Toughness

Using fracture mechanical principles, an expression

has been developed that relates this critical stress for
crack propagation (𝜎c) and crack length (a) as
 GRIFFITH’S THEORY
Griffith proposed that a brittle material contains a
population of fine small cracks and flaws that have a
variety of sizes , geometries and orientation which
produces a stress concentration of sufficient
magnitude so that the theoretical cohesive strength is
reached in localized regions at a nominal stress
which is well below the theoretical value.
 GRIFFITH’S THEORY
● When one of the cracks spreads, it produces an increase
in the surface area of the side of the crack.
● This requires energy to overcome the cohesive force of
the atom
● Or express in another way
● It requires an increase in surface energy.
● The source of increased in surface energy is the elastic
strain energy which is released as the crack spreads.
 GRIFFITH’S THEORY
● A crack will propagate when the decrease in elastic
strain energy is at least equal to create the new Crack.

● The decrease in strain energy results from the

formation of a crack
 GRIFFITH’S THEORY
● Consider the crack model as shown in
figure.
● The thickness of the plate is negligible
so the problem can be treated as one in
plane stress.
● The cracks are assumed to have an
elliptical shape. Crack length = interior
= 2c, edge = c
● The effect of both types of cracks on the
fracture behavior is the same
 Methods for Measuring Fracture Toughness

Impact Testing Destructive Testing

● Charpy Impact test ● Tensile Testing
● IZOD Impact Test ● Three-Point Bend Test
Factors Affecting Fracture Toughness

● Material Composition
The composition of the material, including
alloying elements and impurities, plays a crucial role
in determining fracture toughness. Alloying elements
can promote toughness by affecting the material's
microstructure and properties.
Factors Affecting Fracture Toughness

● Temperature:
Temperature affects the mechanical behavior of
materials. Fracture toughness may decrease at lower
temperatures, making materials more brittle.
Conversely, some materials become tougher at
elevated temperatures.
Factors Affecting Fracture Toughness

● Loading Rate
The rate at which the stress is applied to the
material can affect fracture toughness. Higher loading
rates can lead to reduced toughness in certain
materials.
 Factors Affecting Fracture Toughness

● Environmental Factors
The presence of environmental factors such as
moisture, chemicals, or hydrogen can affect fracture
toughness. These factors may promote environmental
cracking, which can significantly reduce toughness.
 Factors Affecting Fracture Toughness

● Notch Size and Shape

The size and shape of a pre-existing crack or
notch in the material can influence fracture
toughness. Smaller cracks may require less energy to
propagate, while sharp notches can concentrate stress,
reducing toughness.
 Factors Affecting Fracture Toughness

● Microstructure
The microstructure of the material, such as grain
size, grain boundaries, and phase distribution, has a
profound impact on fracture toughness. Fine-grained
materials often exhibit higher toughness due to
improved crack resistance.
Applications of Fracture Toughness

Aerospace Industry

Structural Engineering

Material Selection

Electrical Engineering
Impact Testing
IMPACT
TESTING
● Charpy Impact Test
● Izod Impact Test
IMPACT TESTING
Impact testing is a materials testing method used
to evaluate the toughness and resilience of a
material, especially in the context of its behavior
under sudden or dynamic loads. Impact tests are
conducted to assess how a material responds when
subjected to rapid loading conditions, such as impact
or shock.
IMPACT TESTING
It helps determine the material's ability to absorb
energy and resist fracture under dynamic forces. The
key result obtained from impact testing is the energy
absorbed by the material before fracture, known as the
impact energy or impact strength. Materials with higher
impact strengths are more resistant to sudden loading
and are often preferred in applications where impact
resistance is essential.
HOW IMPACT TESTING IS CONDUCTED?

1. Begin by preparing a specimen of the material you

want to test. The specimen's dimensions and notch
geometry (if applicable) should adhere to relevant
testing standards.

2. The notch, if used, can be a V-notch, U-notch, or other

specified geometries depending on the testing standard
and material.
HOW IMPACT TESTING IS CONDUCTED?

3. Use a specialized impact testing machine, such as a

Charpy (ASTM E23) or Izod impact tester (ASTM
D256), designed for the specific type of material you
are testing.

4. Calibrate the testing machine to ensure accuracy and

consistency in measurements.
HOW IMPACT TESTING IS CONDUCTED?

5. Securely mount the prepared specimen in the testing

machine, ensuring proper alignment with respect to the
notch and impact direction.

6. Raise the pendulum or striker of the testing machine to

a specific height, referred to as the "drop height" or
"initial potential energy."
HOW IMPACT TESTING IS CONDUCTED?

7. Release the pendulum or striker, allowing it to swing

down and strike the specimen with the notch. The
sudden impact induces rapid deformation and fracture
of the specimen.

8. After the impact, the pendulum continues to swing

upward on the opposite side but reaches a lower height
than the initial potential energy.
HOW IMPACT TESTING IS CONDUCTED?

9. Measure the difference in height between the initial

height and the height reached after the impact. This
difference represents the energy absorbed by the
specimen during fracture.

10.The impact energy is measured in joules (J) or foot-

pounds (ft-lb).
HOW IMPACT TESTING IS CONDUCTED?

11.Record the impact energy value obtained from the test.

12.To ensure accuracy and reliability, multiple tests are

often conducted using specimens from the same
material batch. The results are averaged to minimize
variability.
 Engineers and materials scientists use the
impact energy values to assess the material's
toughness and its ability to resist fracture under
dynamic loading. A higher impact energy value
generally indicates greater toughness and
resistance to impact.
 IMPACT TESTING
Charpy Impact Testing
● Specimen: Rectangular with a
V-notch or U-notch cut on one
side.
● Notch Location: On the
vertical face away from the
point of impact.
● Common Use: Typically used
for metallic materials.
IZOD Impact Testing
● Specimen: Rectangular with a
notch, often a V-notch, on one
side.
● Notch Location: The notch is
positioned to the side facing
the pendulum hammer.
● Common Use: Primarily used
for plastics and polymers, but it
can also be applied to certain
metals.
 IMPACT TESTING
Charpy Impact Testing
● Test Machine: Uses a
pendulum-type testing machine
with a striking hammer.
● Impact Direction: The
pendulum strikes the notched
side of the specimen.
● Notch Orientation: The notch
is oriented vertically in the
specimen.
IZOD Impact Testing
● Test Machine: Also employs a
pendulum-type machine with a
striking hammer.
● Impact Direction: The
pendulum strikes the side
opposite to the notched side of
the specimen.
● Notch Orientation: The notch
is oriented horizontally in the
specimen.
 IMPACT TESTING
Charpy Impact Testing
● Focus: Primarily used for
assessing the impact behavior
of metallic materials, including
steel, aluminum, and alloys.
● Applications: Commonly
applied in construction,
structural engineering, and
manufacturing industries.
IZOD Impact Testing
● Focus: Mainly used for
plastics, polymers, and
composite materials, though it
can also be adapted for some
metals.
● Applications: Commonly
employed in the plastics
industry, including the testing
of plastic components used in
automotive and consumer
 IMPACT TESTING
In summary, while both the Charpy and Izod Impact
Tests serve the purpose of assessing material toughness
under impact loading, they differ in specimen
geometry, notch location, and common applications.
The Charpy test is typically used for metals, while the
Izod test is primarily employed for plastics and
polymers. The choice between the two depends on the
material being tested and industry standards.
DESTRUCTIVE
TESTING
● CORROSION TESTING
● HARDNESS TESTING
● TENSILE TESTING
● TORSION TESTING
 CORROSION TESTING

Brass samples after 5 days of salt spray corrosion

 CORROSION TESTING
Corrosion testing is a test method done to test
the effectiveness of applied corrosion resistance
measures. It covers all experimentation and
processes to prevent or mitigate corrosion-related
problems. Measuring the characteristics and the
rate of corrosion can also be considered to be part
of corrosion testing.
 HARDNESS TESTING

An indenter used for hardness testing

 HARDNESS TESTING

Material hardness determines whether

components undergo permanent deformation due
to stress. Hardness shows how effectively a material
resists indentation. This indicates how long a
component can be in use and how well it will
perform over time.
 HARDNESS TESTING
The Rockwell scale is a commonly used
measure to index hardness with respect to the
reference material. An indenter is used to penetrate
the material with a consistent force. The depth of
penetration is indexed against the depth of
penetration in the reference material.
TENSILE TESTING

A tensile test demonstration

 TENSILE TESTING
Tensile testing is conducted by applying
controlled force across test material till it fails
(crack, breakage, etc). The test specimen is
compressed or elongated according to the
characteristics that are being measured. Tensile
testing is used to determine the strength of the
material.
TORSION TESTING

A torsion test demonstration

 TORSION TESTING
Torsion testing is conducted similarly to tensile
testing. Instead of compression and elongation,
torsional forces are applied to the material. This
helps to determine the shearing forces the
material can withstand before it deforms. The
point at which the material twists and breaks is the
failure point of the material.
 Destructive testing is essential for
machine reliability

Machine reliability is heavily dependent on the

quality of used components. An asset is only as
strong as its weakest link. Destructive testing
ensures that only components with suitable physical
characteristics end up in their machines.
DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

Destructive testing are defined as those

tests that are made to a material through the
use of tools or machines, which produce an
irreversible alteration of their chemical
composition or dimensional geometry.
DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
Destructive testing is generally conducted
before a component enters mass production.
Manufacturers need to know the limits of their
products in order to give proper maintenance
and operating recommendations for their
machines.
DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

Also referred to as “DT” , a test method

conducted to find the exact point of failure of
materials, components, or machines. During
the process, the tested item undergoes stress
that eventually deforms or destroys the
material.
HOW DESTRUCTIVE TESTING IS
CONDUCTED?
1. Determine the specific goals and objectives of the
destructive test. What properties or characteristics are you
trying to evaluate or measure?

2. Choose representative specimens or samples from the

material or component to be tested. Ensure these specimens
are properly prepared and meet relevant standards or
specifications.
HOW DESTRUCTIVE TESTING IS
CONDUCTED?
3. Set up the testing equipment, including fixtures, grips, and
sensors, in accordance with the test method and specimen
geometry.

4. Ensure that the specimens are conditioned to the

appropriate temperature, humidity, or environmental
conditions, especially if testing is sensitive to these factors.
HOW DESTRUCTIVE TESTING IS
CONDUCTED?
5. Apply the specified load or stress to the specimen. For
example, in tensile testing, gradually increase the load until
the specimen fractures.

6. Continuously monitor and record relevant data during the

test, including load, displacement, strain, or other
parameters using data acquisition systems.
HOW DESTRUCTIVE TESTING IS
CONDUCTED?
7. Also continuously monitor the specimen for signs of
deformation, cracks, or ultimate failure. Capture the
moment when failure occurs.

8. Examine the fractured specimen or any remaining

components to assess the mode of failure, fracture surfaces,
and any defects or anomalies.
HOW DESTRUCTIVE TESTING IS
CONDUCTED?
9. Examine the fractured specimen or any remaining
components to assess the mode of failure, fracture surfaces,
and any defects or anomalies.

10.Analyze the collected data, such as stress-strain curves or

impact energy values, to calculate the relevant material
properties. Compare the results to industry standards or
specifications.
HOW DESTRUCTIVE TESTING IS
CONDUCTED?
11.Interpret the test results within the context of the testing
objectives. Determine if the material or component meets
the desired criteria or if further action is required

12.Provide recommendations based on the test results. This

may include design modifications, material selection, or
additional testing.
Importance of Destructive Testing
Destructive testing holds crucial importance in
the field of electrical engineering as it enables the
thorough evaluation of electrical components'
reliability and safety. By subjecting materials and
components to controlled destruction, electrical
engineers can uncover weaknesses, defects, and
potential points of failure that may not be
apparent through non-destructive methods alone.
Importance of Destructive Testing

This approach is particularly vital in ensuring

the robustness of electrical systems, such as
wires, connectors, insulators, and circuit
components, which must withstand various
environmental and operational stresses over
time.
Importance of Destructive Testing

Destructive testing provides valuable

insights into the performance limits and
failure modes of these components,
contributing to the development of safer,
more durable, and efficient electrical
systems
FATIGUE IN
ENGINEERING
AND
MATERIALS
 WHAT IS A FATIGUE?

❏ It is a form of failure ❏ is used because this

that occurs in structures
subjected to dynamic
and fluctuating stresses
(e.g., bridges, aircraft,
and machine
components).
type of failure normally
occurs after a lengthy
period of repeated
stress or strain cycling.
 DEFINITION OF TERMS:

❏ FATIGUE LIMIT ❏ FATIGUE STRENGTH

Also sometimes called is defined as the stress

“Endurance limit”, It is the
maximum level of cyclic
stress that a material can
withstand for an infinite
number of cycles without
experiencing fatigue failure.
level at which failure will
occur for
some specified number of
cycles (e.g., 107 cycles).
 DEFINITION OF TERMS:

❏ FATIGUE LIFE

A fatigue life refers to the number of cycles of

loading and unloading that a material or
component can endure before experiencing
fatigue failure.
 FATIGUE FAILURE
is brittlelike in nature even in
normally ductile metals, in that there
is very little, if any, gross plastic
deformation associated with failure.
The process occurs by the initiation
and propagation of cracks, and
ordinarily the fracture surface is
perpendicular to the direction of an
applied tensile stress.
FATIGUE FAILURE
❏ CRACK INITIATION AND PROPAGATION
The process of fatigue failure is characterized by three distinct steps:

(1) crack initiation, wherein a small crack forms at some point

of high stress concentration;

(2) crack propagation, during which this crack advances

incrementally with each stress cycle; and

(3) final failure, which occurs very rapidly once the advancing
crack has reached a critical size.
 CRACK INITIATION:
In the context of fracture failure,
crack initiation refers to the point in
time and location within a material
where the first small crack begins to
form. Fracture failure occurs when a
material cannot withstand the
applied load, leading to the
formation and propagation of cracks,
ultimately resulting in structural
failure.
 CRACK PROPAGATION:
Crack propagation in fatigue failure is
a phenomenon that occurs in materials
when they are subjected to cyclic or
repeated loading, which can lead to the
growth and eventual failure of cracks
within the material. Fatigue failure is a
common mode of failure in many
engineering components and structures,
and understanding crack propagation in
fatigue is crucial for ensuring their safety
and reliability.
 FRACTURE:

Fracture in fatigue failure is the

ultimate and often catastrophic
result of repeated cyclic loading on
a material. Fatigue failure occurs
when a material progressively
weakens and develops cracks due to
the application of cyclic stresses,
ultimately leading to the material's
fracture.
WHAT CAUSES FATIGUE IN MATERIALS?
❏ Fatigue in materials is a phenomenon
characterized by the gradual and progressive
weakening of a material's mechanical properties
under repeated or cyclic loading, even when the
applied stresses are well below the material's
ultimate strength. Fatigue failure typically occurs
in metals, but it can also affect other materials like
polymers and composites.
WHAT CAUSES FATIGUE IN MATERIALS?

❏ Stress Amplitude ❏ Temperature and

Environment

❏ Material Properties ❏ Design Modifications

 STRESS AMPLITUDE:
The magnitude of cyclic stress or
stress range plays a significant role in
fatigue failure. Higher stress
amplitudes generally lead to faster
crack initiation and propagation.
Reducing stress levels through design
modifications or load reduction can
extend the fatigue life of a component.
 MATERIAL PROPERTIES:
The mechanical properties of the material, including its tensile strength,
yield strength, hardness, and ductility, influence fatigue resistance.
Materials with higher strength and better ductility tend to resist fatigue
better.
 TEMPERATURE AND ENVIRONMENT:
Elevated temperatures and aggressive
environments (e.g., corrosive
chemicals) can accelerate fatigue
crack growth. High-temperature
fatigue, in particular, can significantly
reduce a material's fatigue life.
TEMPERATURE AND ENVIRONMENT:
❏ THERMAL FATIGUE
is normally induced at elevated
temperatures by fluctuating
thermal stresses; mechanical
stresses from an external source
need not be present.
TEMPERATURE AND ENVIRONMENT:
❏ CORROSION FATIGUE

Failure that occurs by the

simultaneous action of a cyclic
stress and chemical
attack
FATIGUE TESTING
IN ENGINEERING
AND MATERIALS
 HIGH CYCLE FATIGUE:
This is the most common form of
fatigue testing, where specimens are
tested under repeated cyclic loading
for many thousands or millions of
cycles. The loads applied are normally
a fraction of the yield strength of the
material, so tested well within the
elastic limit.
ROTATING BENDING FATIGUE TESTING
MACHINE
WHAT IS THE PURPOSE AND OBJECTIVE
OF FATIGUE TESTING
❏ Fatigue testing is an integral part of the product development process. It
provides essential data for engineers and designers to refine their
designs, select appropriate materials, and optimize the geometry of
components.

❏ Manufacturers use fatigue testing as part of their quality control

procedures to ensure that every unit produced meets predetermined
performance criteria. By identifying potential fatigue issues early in the
design and development stages, manufacturers can avoid costly recalls,
repairs, and replacements.