Engineering Materials Properties Laboratory Manual: BY: DR - Sabeeha A.J.Beden Ahmed

Middle Technical University Engineering
Technical College – Baghdad Fuel and Energy

Techniques Engineering Departmenty 2021-2022
ENGINEERING MATERIALS
Properties
LABORATORY MANUAL
BY:
Dr.Sabeeha A.J.Beden
Ahmed
ENGINEERING MATERIALS Properties - LABORATORY MANUAL
CONTENT PAGE
Report Writing ………………………………………………………………………………………… 1
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS
Mechanical testing methods
Destructive testing
1. Tensile Test
2. Compression Test
3. Bending Test
4. Torsion Test
5. Impact Test
6. Hardness Test
7. Fatigue Test
8. Creep Test
9. Buckling Test
NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
10-Metallography Specimen Preparation & Examination
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Report Writing
Every student is required to submit his own separate report for each test conducted. Reports should be
written on A4 high-quality paper. The sample of report cover sheet is shown on the following page:
Department Name
Laboratory Report
Experiment #
: Experiment Title :
Student Name :
Date of Experiment :
Date of Submission
In general, the reports should be arranged in the following order:
1. Introduction
Detail information related to the experiment such as applicable equations theory, application of the
experiment in the industry etc.
2. Objective
A brief paragraph of the objective and significance of the experiment along with any applicable
equation’s theory on the experiment.
3. Test Procedure
Since the assigned experiments are performed in accordance with applicable standard procedures, it is
sufficient to cite such standards. When standard is not available or changes in the experimental
procedure are suggested, the exact procedure should be carefully studied, followed and written on the
report.
4. Experimental Data and Result
These should be presented in the clearest possible form. Tabulations are usually the best way for
presenting both the data and results. Graphs can also be used for the same purpose. Portion or
complete graph sheet can be used. All graphs must be complete with supplementary information
necessary for a complete understanding.
5. Discussion and Conclusions
Analysis of the results and possible sources of errors in experimental work are to be given here. Also,
the questions at the end of each test should fully be answered.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS
Often materials are subject to forces (loads) when they are used. Mechanical engineers calculate those
forces and material scientists how materials deform (elongate, compress, twist) or break as a function of
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applied load, time, temperature, and other conditions. Materials scientists learn about these mechanical
properties by testing materials. Results from the tests depend on the size and shape of material to be
tested (specimen), how it is held, and the way of performing the test. That is why we use common
procedures, or standards.
Mechanical testing methods
Materials testing studies the behaviour of materials under different loads. In particular, the relationship
between the acting forces and the resulting deformation and the limit stresses that lead to failure of
components are considered. The characteristic values obtained from the testing process are used for
materials development, designing components and in quality assurance. There is a range of
standardised testing methods to characterise the mechanical properties of materials as precisely as
possible:
Destructive testing
In destructive testing tests are carried out to the specimen's failure, in order to understand a
specimen's performance or material behavior under different loads. These tests are generally much
easier to carry out, yield more information, and are easier to interpret than nondestructive testing.
This includes different types of destructive testing methods such as tension tests, bend tests,
Charpy impact tests, , crush testing, pressure and fracture testing,Destructive testing methods
can identify physical properties of a component, like toughness, hardness, flexibility, and
strength.
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1. Tensile Test
1-1 Objective
Plotting the engineering and true stress-strain curve for different materials.  Determining the modulus
of elasticity (Young’s modulus), yield stress, ultimate tensile stress, ductility, toughness, strength
coefficient and strain hardening exponent for each material then comparing between them.
1-2 Introduction
The mechanical behavior of materials is described by their deformation and fracture characteristics
under applied tensile, compressive, or multiaxial stresses. Determination of this mechanical behavior is
influenced by several factors that include metallurgical/material variables, test methods, and the nature
of the applied stresses. This article focuses on mechanical behavior under conditions of uniaxial tension
and compression. The main emphasis is on mechanical behavior during the engineering tension test,
which is widely used to provide basic design information on the strength of materials and as an
acceptance test for the specification of materials. In this test procedure, a specimen is subjected to a
continually increasing uniaxial load (force), while simultaneous observations are made of the elongation
of the specimen. In this article, emphasis is placed on the interpretation of these observations rather
than on the procedures for conducting the tests.
1-3 Theory
A tensile testing machine applies a known force to a material sample and measures the resulting
extension. Using simple hydraulics samples will be placed in tension and stretched. A load cell measures
the force applied; an extensometer measures the extension of the sample. Using the tensile testing
machine, you will be able to obtain a force-displacement curve for each material.
1-3-1 Engineering Stress-Strain Curve
In the conventional engineering tension test, an engineering stress-strain curve is constructed from the
load-elongation measurements made on the test specimen (Fig. 1-1). The engineering stress (σeng.)
used in this stress-strain curve is the average longitudinal stress in the tensile specimen. It is obtained by
dividing the load (P) by the original area of the cross section of the specimen (A◦):
The engineering strain, εeng., is obtained by dividing the elongation of the gage length of the specimen
(∆L) by its original length (L◦):
The stress at which plastic deformation or yielding is observed to begin depends on the sensitivity of the
strain measurements.
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With most materials,

there is a gradual transition from elastic to plastic behavior, and the point at which plastic deformation
begins is difficult to define with precision. In tests of materials under uniaxial loading, three criteria for
the initiation of yielding have been used: the elastic limit, the proportional limit, and the yield strength.
Elastic limit, shown at point A in Fig. 1-2, is the greatest stress the material can withstand without any
measurable permanent strain remaining after the complete release of load. With increasing sensitivity
of strain measurement, the value of the elastic limit is decreased until it equals the true elastic limit
determined from microstrain measurements. The elastic limit is greater than the proportional limit.
Determination of the elastic limit requires a tedious incremental loading-unloading test procedure. For
this reason, it is often replaced by the proportional limit. Proportional limit, shown at point Aʹ in Fig. 1-2,
is the highest stress at which stress is directly proportional to strain. It is obtained by observing the
deviation from the straight-line portion of the stressstrain curve. The yield strength, shown at point B in
Fig. 2, is the stress required to produce a small specified amount of plastic deformation. The usual
definition of this property is the offset yield strength determined by the stress corresponding to the
intersection of the stressstrain curve offset by a specified strain (see Fig. 1-1 and 1-2). In the United
States, the offset is usually specified as a strain of 0.2 or 0.1% (ε = 0.002 or 0.001):
In the elastic region, stress is linearly proportional to strain. When the stress exceeds a value
corresponding to the yield strength, the specimen undergoes gross plastic deformation. If the load is
subsequently reduced to zero, the specimen will remain permanently deformed. The stress required to
produce continued plastic deformation increases with increasing plastic strain; that is, the metal strain
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hardens. The tensile strength or ultimate tensile strength (σu) is the maximum load divided by
theoriginal cross sectional area of the specimen:
The ductility can be obtained from the tension test and can be expressed by the engineering strain at
fracture (εf) (usually called the elongation) and the reduction in area at fracture (RA). Elongation and
reduction in area usually are expressed as a percentage. Both of these properties are obtained after
fracture by putting the specimen back together and taking measurements of the final length, Lf, and
final specimen cross section, Af :
Modulus of Elasticity is the slope of the initial linear portion of the stress-strain curve, or Young's
modulus. The modulus of elasticity (E) is a measure of the stiffness of the material. The greater the
modulus, the smaller the elastic strain resulting from the application of a given stress. Because the
modulus of elasticity is needed for computing deflections of beams and other members, it is an
important design value.
The toughness of a material is its ability to absorb energy in the plastic range. Toughness is a commonly
used concept that is difficult to precisely defined. Toughness may be considered to be the total area
under the stress-strain curve. This area, which is referred to as the modulus of toughness (UT) is an
indication of the amount of work per unit volume that can be done on the material without causing it to
rupture. Several mathematical approximations for the area under the stress-strain curve have been
suggested. For ductile metals that have a stress-strain curve like that of the structural steel, the area
under the curve can be approximated by:
For brittle materials, the stress-strain curve is sometimes assumed to be a parabola, and the area under
the curve is given by
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1-3-2 True Stress-Strain Curve
The engineering stress-strain curve does not give a true indication of the deformation characteristics of
a metal because it is based entirely on the original dimensions of the specimen, and these dimensions
change continuously during the test. Also, ductile metal that is pulled in tension becomes unstable and
necks down during the course of the test. Because the cross-sectional area of the specimen is decreasing
rapidly at this stage in the test, the load required to continue deformation falls off. The average stress
based on the original area likewise decreases, and this produces the fall-off in the engineering stress-
strain curve beyond the point of maximum load. Actually, the metal continues to strain harden to
fracture, so that the stress required to produce further deformation should also increase. If the true
stress, based on the actual cross-sectional area of the specimen, is used, the stress-strain curve
increases continuously to fracture as shown in Fig. 1-3.
If the strain measurement is also based on instantaneous measurement, the curve that is obtained is
known as true stress-true strain curve. This is also known as a flow curve because it represents the basic
plastic-flow characteristics of the material. The true stress (σtru) is expressed in terms of engineering
stress (σeng) by:
The true strain, εtru, may be determined from the engineering or conventional strain (εeng) by:
For the ductile materials, the values of necking radius and minimum diameter at fracture for tensile
specimen have been measured using profile projector apparatus to guarantee plotting accurate true
stress-strain curve of the region after σu as shown in Fig. 1-4:
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R: Necking radius (mm) D: Diameter at fracture zone (mm) So = ௙
1-3-3 Mathematical Expressions for the Flow Curve
The flow curve of many metals in the region of uniform plastic deformation can be expressed by the
simple power curve relation:
Where n is the strain-hardening exponent, and K is the strength coefficient. A log-log plot of true stress
and true strain up to maximum load will result in a straight line as shown in Fig. 1-5
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The linear slope of this line is n, and K is the true stress at ε= 1. For n = 0 perfectly plastic solid and n = 1
elastic solid. For most metals, n has values between 0.10 and 0.50.
1-4 Specimens
Tensile test specimen geometry is often influenced by metal product form. For example, only test pieces
with rectangular cross sections can be obtained from sheet products. Test pieces taken from thick plate
may have either flat (plate type) or round cross sections. Most tension-test specifications show
machined test pieces with either circular cross sections or rectangular cross sections. Nomenclatures for
the various sections of a machined test piece are shown in Fig. 1-6. Most tension-test specifications
present a set of dimensions, for each cross-section type, that are standard, as well as additional sets of
dimensions for alternative test pieces. In general, the standard dimensions published by ASTM, ISO and
DIN are similar, but they are not identical
Gage lengths and standard dimensions for machined test pieces specified in ASTM E 8 are shown in Fig.
1-7 for rectangular and round test pieces. From this figure, it can be seen that the gage length is
proportionally four times (4 to 1) the diameter (or width) of the test piece for the standard machined
round test pieces and the sheet type, rectangular test pieces.
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1-5 Procedures
1. Preparation of the tensile test machine.
2. Measurement of dimensions of tensile test specimens.
3. Gage length marking of tensile test specimens.
4. Zeroing of the testing machine.
5. Gripping of the test specimen.
6. Applying the load gradually until the specimen fractured with recording the specimen extension.
7. After the test has been completed, it is often required that the cross-sectional dimensions again be
measured to obtain measures of ductility.
1-6 Results and Calculations
After calculating the values of engineering and true stress and strain can be plotting the engineering
stress-strain curve and true stress-strain curve with correction factor (if required) for each material, then
comparing between them and determined the following:
 Yield strength.  Ultimate tensile strength.  Young's modulus.  Ductility.  Toughness.
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 Strength coefficient.  Strain hardening exponent
1-8 Discussions
Discuss or explain each of the followings:
1. Effect of the carbon percentage on the shape and magnitude (mechanical properties) of stress-
strain curve.
2. . 2. Effect of the material heat treatment on the shape and magnitude of the stress-strain curve.
3. 3. Differentiate between the behaviors of metallic and non-metallic materials under tensile test.
4. 4. Affect of prior history of plastic deformation on the shape and magnitude of the stress-strain
curve. .
5. 5. Effect of the strain rate and temperature on the shape and magnitude of the stressstrain curve. .
6. Effect of the material grain size on the shape and magnitude of the stress-strain curve.
References:
 ASTM E8- Standard Test Methods for Tension Testing of Metallic Materials.
 ASTM B557- Standard Test Methods for Tension Testing of Wrought Aluminum Alloys.
 ASM Handbook, "Mechanical Testing and Evaluation", Vol. 8, 2000.
 "Materials Science and Engineering, An Introduction", William D. Callister, Jr., United States of
America,
2007
2. Compression Test
2-1 Objective
Plotting the engineering and true stress-strain curves from the data of a compression test, to observe
the differences between a compression test and tension test, then understanding the role of friction in
compression.
2-2 Introduction
he compression test consists of deforming a cylindrical specimen to produce a short (thinner) cylinder of
larger diameter (upsetting) as shown in Fig. 2-1. The compression test is a convenient method for
determining the stress-strain response of materials at large strains (ε > 0.5) because the test is not
subject to the instability of necking that occurs in a tension test. Also, it may be convenient to use the
compression test because the specimen is relatively easy to make, and it does not require a large
amount of material. The compression test is frequently used in conjunction with evaluating the
workability of materials, especially at elevated temperature, because most deformation processes, like
forging, have a high component of compressive stress. The test is also used with brittle materials, for
which it is extremely difficult to machine a specimen and used for tensile test it in perfect alignment.
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2-3 Theory
2-3-1. Engineering stress-strain curve
2-3-1. Engineering stress-strain curve
The engineering stress (σeng) used in this stress-strain curve is the average longitudinal stress in the
compression specimen. It is obtained by dividing the load (P) by the original area of the cross section of
the specimen (A◦):
The engineering strain, εeng, is obtained by dividing the reduction of the gage length of the specimen
(∆L) by its original length (L◦):
Most mechanical properties determined by tensile test can be also determined by compression test,
such as:
 Yield Strength- To determine the yield strength by the offset method it is necessary to secure data
from which a stress-strain diagram may be drawn. Then on the stress-strain diagram (Fig. 2-2) lay off Om
equal to the specified value of offset (conventional offset is 0.002 in./in. (m/m)), draw mn parallel to OA,
and thus locate r, the intersection of mn with the stress-strain diagram. The stress corresponding to the
point r is the yield strength for the specified offset.
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Compressive Strength- For a material that fails in compression by crushing or fracturing, the
compressive strength is the maximum stress at or before fracture, as determined by dividing the
maximum load by the cross sectional area. For ductile materials, compressive strength may be
determined from the stress-strain diagram at a specified total strain. The strain at which this stress was
determined must be specified.
2-3-2. True stress-strain curve
The true stress (σtru) is expressed in terms of engineering stress (σeng) by:
The true strain, εtru., may be determined from the engineering or conventional strain (εeng.) by:
2-4 Mathematical Expressions for the Flow Curve:
The flow curve of many metals in the region of uniform plastic deformation can be expressed by the
simple power curve relation:
Where n is the strain-hardening exponent, and K is the strength coefficient. A log-log plot of true stress
and true strain up to maximum load will result in a straight line as shown in Fig. 2-3.
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There are two inherent difficulties with the compression test that must be overcome by the test
technique: buckling of the specimen and barreling of the specimen as shown in Fig 2-4. Both conditions
cause nonuniform stress and strain distributions in the specimen that make it difficult to analyze the
results.
 Buckling is a mode of failure characterized by an unstable lateral material deflection caused by

compressive stresses. Buckling is controlled by selecting specimen geometry with a low length-to-
diameter ratio. It also is important to have a very well aligned load train and to ensure that the end faces
of the specimen are parallel and perpendicular to the load axis. Often a special alignment fixture is used
with the testing machine to ensure an accurate load path.
 Barreling is the generation of a convex surface on the exterior of a cylinder that is deformed in
compression. The cross section of such a specimen is barrel shaped. Barreling is caused by the friction
between the end faces of the compression specimen and the anvils that apply the load. As the cylinder
decreases in height (h) it wants toincrease in diameter (D) because of the volume of an incompressible
material must remain constant.
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2-5 Specimens
2-5-1. Specimens in Solid Cylindrical For
It is recommended that, where as feasible as possible, compression test specimens be in the form of
solid circular cylinders. Three forms of solid cylindrical test specimens for metallic materials are
recognized, and designated as short, medium-length, and long. Suggested dimensions for solid
compression test specimens for general use are given in Table 1. Short specimens typically are used for
compression tests of such materials as bearing metals, which in service are used in the form of thin
plates to carry load perpendicular to the surface. Medium-length specimens typically are used for
determining the general compressive strength properties of metallic materials. Long specimens are best
adapted for determining the modulus of elasticity in compression of metallic materials. The specimen
dimensions given in Table 1 have been used successfully. Specimens with a L/D (length/diameter ratio)
of 1.5 or 2.0 are best adapted for determining the compressive strength of high-strength materials.
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2-5-2. Rectangular or Sheet-Type Specimens
Test specimens shall be flat and preferably of the full thickness of the material. Where lateral support is
necessary, the width and length are dependent upon the dimensions of the jig used to support the
specimen. The length shall be sufficient to allow the specimen to shorten the amount required to define
the yield strength, or yield point, but not long enough to permit buckling in the unsupported portion.
Notes
 Flatness and Parallelism-The ends of a specimen shall be flat and parallel within 0.0005 in/in
(mm/mm) and perpendicular to the lateral surfaces to within 38 of arc. In most cases this requirement
necessitates the machining or grinding of the ends of the specimen.
 Gage Length Location-The ends of the gage length shall not be closer to the ends of the specimen or
ends of the reduced section than one half of the width or diameter of the specimen.
2-6 Procedures
1. Record the initial dimensions of the specimen.
2. Lubricate the end faces of the specimen.
3. Set up the testing machine for compression, and place the specimen between the platens.
4. Compress the specimen in increments until reaching a final height of 0.5 in (aluminum) or 0.2 in
(lead).
5. For each increment of a deformation, record the applied load and the height of the specimen.
6. The specimen may now have a barrel shape. Discontinue the test and measure the final dimensions
of the specimen
For each material tested recording the applied force and resulted reduction in length to calculate the
values of stresses and strains as shown in table below:
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For each tested material, plot engineering and true stress-strain curves.  For each tested material, plot
true stress – true strain data points using log-log axes; then calculate the strain hardening exponent n
and the strength coefficient K.  For each material tested determined the yield strength and
compression strength.
2-8 Discussions
1. What are the differences between the σy, σu and E determined from tensile and compression
tests? 2. Do you agree that the tensile and compression tests for the same material have the
same results? Explain.
References
 ASTM E9- Standard Test Methods for Tension Testing of Metallic Materials at Room
Temperature.  ASM Handbook, "Mechanical Testing and Evaluation", Vol. 8, 2000.  "Materials
Science and Engineering, An Introduction", William D. Callister, Jr., United States of America,
2007
3. Bending Test
3-1 Objective
 To investigate the relationship between load and deflection for fixed span, width, height of a
beam, placed on two bear affected by a concentrated load at the center (three point test).  To
determine some mechanical properties such as bend strength, yield strength in bending and
elastic modulus.
3-2 Introduction
Bend or flexure testing is common in springs and brittle materials whose failure behaviors are
linear such as concretes, stones, woods, plastics, glasses and ceramics. Other types of brittle
materials such as powder metallurgy processed metals and materials are normally tested under
a transverse flexure. Bend test is therefore suitable for evaluating strength of brittle materials
where interpretation of tensile test result of the same material is difficult due to breaking of
specimens around specimen gripping.
3-3 Theory
In bending test a smooth rectangular specimens without notches are generally used under
three-point or four-point bend arrangements as shown in Fig. 3-1 "a" and "b" respectively.
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Considering a three point bend test of an elastic material, when the load P is applied at the
midspan of specimen in an x-y plane, stress distribution across the specimen width (w = 2c)
isdemonstrated in Fig. 3-2 "a". The stress is essentially zero at the neutral axis N-N. Stresses in
the yaxis in the positive direction represent tensile stresses whereas stresses in the negative
direction represent compressive stresses. Within the elastic range, brittle materials show a
linear relationship of load and deflection where yielding occurs on a thin layer of the specimen
surface at the midspan. This in turn leads to crack initiation which finally proceeds to specimen
failure. Ductile materials however provide load-deflection curves which deviate from a linear
relationship before failure takes place as opposed to those of brittle materials previously
mentioned. Furthermore, it is also difficult to determine the beginning of yielding in this case.
The stress distribution of a ductile material after yielding is given in Fig. 3-2 "b". Therefore, it can
be seen that bend testing is not suitable for ductile materials due to difficulties in determining
the yield point of the materials under bending and the obtained stress-strain curve in the elastic
region may not be linear. The results obtained might not be validated. As a result, the bend test
is therefore more appropriate for testing of brittle materials whose stress-strain curves show its
linear elastic behavior just before the materials fail.
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For brittle materials having a liner stress-strain relation, the fracture stress (σf) can be
determined from the fracture stress in bending according to a linear elastic beam analysis as
shown in equation 3-1:
Where:
M is the bending moment
c is half of the specimen width as shown in figure 1 (mm)
t is the thickness of the specimen as shown in figure 1 (mm)
I is the moment of inertia of the cross-sectional area (mm4 )
Under three-point bending in fig.1-a when the load P is applied at the midspan of a rectangular
bar of a length L between the two rollers, the highest bending moment at the midspan is
Where: σfb is the calculated fracture stress (MPa) Pf is the fracture load obtained from the
bending test (KN) w is the width of the specimen of length = 2c
The fracture stress in bending is called the bend strength or flexure strength, which is equivalent
to the modulus of rupture in bending. The bend strength is slightly different from the fracture
stress obtained from the tensile test if failure takes place further away from yielding. However,
brittle materials possess higher strength in compression than in tension. The material failure
under bending is therefore owing to the tensile stresses especially along the surface opposite to
the load direction. The determination of the yield strength (σy) is carried out by replacing the
load at yielding Pf in equation 3-4. The yielding load is determined at the definite yield point or
at certain % offset. Hence, we now have the yield strength in equation 5. It should be noted that
the yield strength obtained from the bend test is not different from the yield strength achieved
from the tensile test. This is because the relationship between the load and the deflection
remains linear at yielding.
The deflection of the beam (δ) from the center as illustrated in fig.2 can be expressed in
equation 6:
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The flexural strain εf is calculated from equation 3-8:
Moreover, from the experimental result, we can also obtain the elastic modulus of the material
according to the linear-elastic analysis. Where the elastic modulus (EB) can be calculated from
the slope of the load-deflection curve in the linear region. The elastic moduli achieved from the
bend test are generally close to the elastic moduli obtained from tension and compression using
the same material.
3-4 Procedures
1. Measure the width and thickness of the specimen including the span length in the table
provided for the calculation of the stress and elastic modulus. Mark on the locations where the
load will be applied under three-point bending.
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2. Bend testing is carried out using a universal testing machine until failure takes place.
Construct the load-extension or load-deflection curve if the dial gauge is used.
3. Calculate the bend strength, yield strength and elastic modulus of the specimen.
4. Describe the failure under bending and sketch the fracture surfaces in the table provided.
5. Discuss the obtained experimental results and give conclusions.

Before doing the test, recoding the specimen dimensions involves: thickness t, width w and span
length L. Then recording the load and deformation vales as shown in the following table:
3-6 Discussions
 What do you expect if the bending experiment has been carried out at elevated
temperatures?
 Give three examples of engineering applications which involve bending properties of the
materials
References
 ASTM E290- Standard Test Methods for Bend Testing of Material for Ductility.
America, 2007.
4. Torsion Test
4-1 Objective
 Plotting the relationships between torque-degree of rotation (angle of twist) and the shear
stress-shear strain of the tested materials.
 Determining the maximum shearing stress, shear stress at proportional limit, shear modulus
or modulus of rigidity.
4-2 Introduction
In many areas of engineering applications, materials are sometimes subjected to torsion in
services, for example, drive shafts, axles and twisted drills. Moreover, structural applications
such as bridges, springs, car bodies, airplane fuselages and boat hulls are randomly subjected to
torsion. The materials used in this case should require not only adequate strength but also be
able to withstand torque in operation. Torsion test is applicable for testing brittle materials such
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as tool steels and the test has also been used to determine the forge-ability of the materials by
means of torsion testing at elevated temperatures.
4-3 Theory
In order to study the response of materials under a torsional force, the torsion test is performed
by mounting the specimen onto a torsion testing machine, and then applying the twisting
moment till failure. The torque and degree of rotation are measured and plotted as shown in
Fig. 4-1. It can be seen that higher torsional force is required at the higher degrees of rotation.
Normally, the test specimens used are of a cylindrical rod type since the stress distribution
across the section of the rod is the simplest geometry, which is easy for the calculation of the
stresses.
Consider a cylindrical bar with one end being twisted as shown in Fig. 4-2, the twisting moment
MT is resisted by the shear stress τ existing across the specimen section. This shear stress is zero
at the center of the bar, increases linearly with its radius and finally reaches its maximum value
at the peripheral of the bar. If the cylindrical bar with a length of L, the twisting moment can be
related to the shear stress as follow:
The shear strain, γ, can be calculated from the following equation:
Where
J is the polar moment of inertia, mm2 G is the shear modulus, MPa
θ is degree of rotation, (θ *2π/360) radian
r is the radius of the cylindrical bar, mm
L is the length of the cylindrical bar, mm
τ is the shear stress, MPa
Ø is the shear angle, degree
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From the relationship of torque and degree of rotation Fig. 4-1, we can notice that the torsion
specimen deformed elastically and then plastically similar to the case of the tension tested
specimen. The initial stage of elastic behavior shows a linear relationship between torque and
degrees of rotation with its slope can be derived as:
Form which one can be obtain the shear modulus (G) value experimentally utilizing (torque-
degree of rotation) curve as being discussed. On the other hand if one uses the last terms in
same equation 4-1 to obtain:
Which is just Hook’s law for shear stress-strain case, from which one can obtain also the shear
modulus (G) value experimentally by calculating the slope as:
Within the elastic range of deformation, the shear stress can be calculated according the
following equation
For a solid cylindrical specimen, the polar moment J = πD4 /32, we can therefore determine the
shear stress as shown in the following equation:
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For a tube specimen, the maximum shear stress at the peripheral of the tube can be calculated
from the following equation:
Where D1 ; is the outer diameter of the tube, mm

D2 ; is the inner diameter of the tube, mm
Therefore, if the torque and the degree of rotation are known according to the experimental
result, the shear stress and the shear strain can be determined. The obtained information is
then used for the construction of the graphical relationship between the modular shear stress
(16MT/aD3 ) and the shear strain (θr/L) as illustrated in Fig. 4-3. The curve is somewhat similar
to those typical stress-strain curves tested under tension, giving elastic and plastic ranges with
respect to the torsional stress applied.
4-3-1 Determine the Poisson’s Ratio, , using torsional stress-strain relationships

The elongation produced by an axial tensile force (P) in the direction of the force (x-axis) is
accompanied by a contraction in any transverse direction (y and z axis). All materials considered
will be assumed to be both homogeneous and isotropic, their mechanical properties will be
assumed independent of both position and direction. Where  = - (lateral strain / axial strain) = -
ϵy / ϵx = -ϵz / ϵx Relationship between E and G:
4-3-2. Types of torsion failures

Torsion failures are different from tension failures and normally provide little deformation or
elongation. The characteristic of the fracture surface is related to the state of stress at the point
24
on the bar surface, which can be described as shown in Fig. 4-4. It can be seen that the
maximum shear stresses exist along two planes, which are perpendicular to each other. One is
perpendicular to the longitudinal axis (yy) and another is aligned parallel to the longitudinal axis
(xx). The principle stresses σ1 and σ3 are inclined at 45o to the longitudinal axis and have their
magnitudes equal to those of the shear stresses. The principle stress σ1 is tensile while the
principle stress σ3 is compressive. The intermediate stress σ2 is zero under torsion. As
mentioned previously, the characteristics of torsion fractures are influenced by torsional and
tensile forces. These result in two types of torsion failures; 1) ductile failure due to the shear
stresses and 2) brittle failure due to the tensile stresses. The former produces the fracture
surface along the plane of the maximum shear stress and more frequently normal to the
longitudinal axis as shown in figures “a” and “b”.
The latter exhibits the fracture planes normal to the directions of the tensile stresses, which are
45o to the longitudinal axis.
Fig. 4-5 shows brittle and ductile fracture surfaces observed from a driveshaft and a brass rod
respectively failed under torsion. This means the driveshaft failed under a brittle manner
influenced by the tensile stresses while the ductile failure of the brass rod was affected by the
shear stresses. However, if the specimen fails into little pieces where the fracture plane cannot
be determined, the fracture in this case is considered to start along the maximum shear stress
parallel to the longitudinal axis of the specimen. In addition, it has also been shown in a study,
which has indicated that the fracture characteristic is associated with the hardness of the tool
steels. If the tool steel possesses the hardness values of higher than 720 HV, failure is expected
to be influenced by tensile stress. Conversely, if the hardness of the tool steel is lower than 720
HV, the shear stress is responsible for such a failure.
25
4-4 Procedures
1. Measure initial diameter, initial length and initial gauge length of the specimen. Record these
parameters on the table provided.
26
2. Draw a line using a permanent pen along the length of the test specimen. This line will help to
notice the degree of rotation during applying the twisting moment.
3. Grip the test specimen on to the torsion testing machine using sockets and make sure the
specimens are firmly mounted. Fit both ends of the specimen to input and torque shafts and set
reading on the torque meter to zero.
4. Start twisting the specimen at strain increment of 0.5o until failure occurs. Record the
received data rotation in the table provided for the construction of torque and degree
relationship.
5. Construct the relationship between shear stress and shear strain. Determine maximum shear
stress, shear stress at proportional limit and modulus of rigidity.

After recording the applied twisting moment and resulted angle, fill the following table
Now, the twisting moment-twisting angle and shear stress-shear strain curves can be plotted,
then determine maximum shear stress, shear stress at proportional limit and modulus of
rigidity.
4-6 Discussions  What are the differences between torsion and tension tests?  Which
engineering applications do you think that torsion test is vital? Give three examples.
References
America, 2007.
 ASTM E132- Standard Test Method for Poisson’s Ratio at Room Temperature.
 ASTM E143- Standard Test Method for Shear Modulus at Room Temperature
27
5. Impact Test
5-1 Objective
To determine the ductile-to-brittle transition temperature of metal specimens by impact test
using different methods
5-2 Introduction
Various types of notched-bar impact tests are used to determine the tendency of a material to
behave as a brittle manner. This type of test will detect differences between materials which are
not observable in a tension test. The results obtained from notched-bar tests are not readily
expressed in terms of design requirements, since it is not possible to measure the components
of the triaxial stress condition at the notch.
5-3 Theory
Two standardized tests, the Charpy and Izod, were designed and are still used to measure the
impact energy, sometimes also termed notch toughness. The Charpy V-notch (CVN) technique is
most commonly used in the United States. For both Charpy and Izod, the specimen is in the
shape of a bar of square cross section, into which a V-notch is machined. The load is applied as
an impact blow from a weighted pendulum hammer that is released from a cocked position at a
fixed height h. The specimen is positioned at the base as shown. Upon release, a knife edge
mounted on the pendulum strikes and fractures the specimen at the notch, which acts as a
point of stress concentration for this high-velocity impact blow. The pendulum continues its
swing, rising to a maximum height hʹ which is lower than h. The energy absorption, computed
from the difference between h and hʹ is a measure of the impact energy [the difference in
potential energy = mg(h – hʹ)]. The primary difference between the Charpy and Izod techniques
lies in the manner of specimen support, as illustrated in Fig. 5-1. Furthermore, these are termed
impact tests in light of the manner of load application.
28
29
5-3-1 Ductile-to-Brittle Transition

One of the primary functions of Charpy and Izod tests is to determine whether or not a material
experiences a ductile-to-brittle transition with decreasing temperature and, if so, the range of
temperatures over which it occurs. The ductile-to-brittle transition is related to the temperature
dependence of the measured impact energy absorption. This transition is represented for a steel
by curve A in Fig. 5-2. At higher temperatures the CVN energy is relatively large, in correlation
with a ductile mode of fracture. As the temperature is lowered, the impact energy drops
suddenly over a relatively narrow temperature range, below which the energy has a constant
but small value; that is, the mode of fracture is brittle.
30
Alternatively, appearance of the failure surface is indicative of the nature of fracture and may be
used in transition temperature determinations. For ductile fracture this surface appears fibrous
or dull (or of shear character), as in the steel specimen of Fig. 5-3 that was tested at 79 ◦C.
Conversely, totally brittle surfaces have a granular (shiny) texture (or cleavage character) (the -
59 ◦C specimen, Fig. 3). Over the ductile-to-brittle transition, features of both types will exist (in
Fig. 3, displayed by specimens tested at -12 ◦C, 4 ◦C, 16 ◦C and 24 ◦C).
Frequently, the percent shear fracture is plotted as a function of temperature-curve B in Fig. 5-2.
For many alloys there is a range of temperatures over which the ductile-to-brittle transition
occurs (Fig. 5-3); this presents some difficulty in specifying a single ductile-to-brittle transition
temperature. No explicit criterion has been established, and so this temperature is often defined
as that temperature at which the CVN energy assumes some value (e.g., 27 J), or corresponding
to some given fracture appearance (e.g., 50% fibrous fracture). Matters are further complicated
in as much as a different transition temperature may be realized for each of these criteria.
Perhaps the most conservative transition temperature is that at which the fracture surface
becomes 100% fibrous; on this basis, the transition temperature is approximately 110-130 ◦C for
the steel alloy that is the subject of Fig. 5-3. In addition to the ductile-to-brittle transition
represented in Fig. 5-3, two other general types of impact energyversus-temperature behavior
have been observed; these are represented schematically by the upper and lower curves of Fig.
5-4. Here it may be noted that low-strength FCC metals (some aluminum and copper alloys) and
31
most HCP metals do not experience a ductile-to-brittle transition (corresponding to the upper
curve of Fig. 5-4), and retain high impact energies (i.e., remain ductile) with decreasing
temperature. For high-strength materials (e.g., high-strength steels and titanium alloys), the
impact energy is also relatively insensitive to temperature (the lower curve of Fig. 5-4); however,
these materials are also very brittle, as reflected by their low impact energy values. And, of
course, the characteristic ductile-to-brittle transition is represented by the middle curve of Fig.
5- 4. As noted, this behavior is typically found in low-strength steels that have the BCC crystal
structure. Most ceramics and polymers also experience a ductile-to-brittle transition. For
ceramic materials, the transition occurs only at elevated temperatures, ordinarily in excess of
1000 ◦C.
5-4 Specimens
The type of specimen chosen depends largely upon the characteristics of the material to be
tested. A given specimen may not be equally satisfactory for soft nonferrous metals and
hardened steels; therefore, many types of specimens are recognized. In general, sharper
anddeeper notches are required to distinguish differences in very ductile materials or when
using low testing velocities. The specimens shown in Figs. 5-5 a, b, c and 6 are those most widely
used and most generally satisfactory. They are particularly suitable for ferrous metals, excepting
cast iron. The specimen commonly found suitable for die-cast alloys is shown in Fig. 5-7.
32
The specimens commonly found suitable for powdered metals (P/M) are shown in Figs. 5-8 and
5-9. The specimen surface may be in the as-produced condition or smoothly machined, but
polishing has proven generally unnecessary. Un-notched specimens are used with P/M
materials. In P/M materials, the impact test results are affected by specimen orientation.
Therefore, unless otherwise specified, the position of the specimen in the machine shall be such
that the pendulum will strike a surface that is parallel to the compacting direction
33
5-5 Procedures
1. Check that the operating lever of the impact testing machine is at the “Brake” position and
that the Release Stop is installed.
2. Study the Charpy Impact Testing Machine and the two energy scales. The low-energy scale
will be used for tests at 0°C and below and the high-energy scale for tests at tempera above 0°C.
3. Practice the proper method to grip the specimen using the special purpose tongs provided.
Also learn to mount the specimen properly in the impact testing machine.
4. Turn the operating lever to the “Latch” position. Raise the pendulum to the lower energy or
higher energy position depending upon the temperature at which the test is about to be done.
Keep all parts of your body well away from under the pendulum until the test is completed.
Adjust the recording pointer on the energy scale such that it touches the moving pointer at the
proper side.
5. Gripping the specimen with the tongs, immerse it into the liquid nitrogen provided and hold
until the liquid nitrogen stops boiling. Remove the specimen from the liquid nitrogen bath and,
without any loss of time, mount it onto the impact testing machine.
6. Keeping a good distance from the machine, turn the operating lever to the “Release”
position. The pendulum will swing down, hit the specimen, break it and swing up to the other
side. Turn the operating lever to the “Brake” position.
7. Read on the scale the value of the impact energy absorbed by the specimen for the fracture.
Record this value
8. Repeat the steps 4 to 7 at the various temperatures. The temperatures can be achieved by
immersing the specimen into constant temperature baths of liquid nitrogen, dry ice, plain ice
and boiling water. 9. Study the fracture surface of all the specimens of any one material and
sketch them, neatly differentiating between the ductile and brittle fracture areas. 10. Make a
table showing the material, the temperature, the impact fracture energy and the mode of
failure. 11. Plot the impact energy (Y axis) versus temperature (X axis) and draw a smooth curve
through the points.
5-7 Discussions
 What are the main factors affecting on the impact test? And, How?
References:
 ASTM E23- Standard Test Methods for Notched Bar Impact Testing of Metallic Materials.
America, 2007.
34
6. Hardness Test
6-1 Objective 
To understand what hardness is, and how it can be used to indicate some other mechanical
properties of materials.  To conduct typical engineering hardness tests and be able to
recognize commonly used hardness scales and numbers.  To be able to understand the
correlation between different hardness numbers.
6-2 Introduction
Hardness is usually defined as the resistance of a material to plastic penetration through its
surface. Hardness of materials has probably long been assessed by resistance to scratching or
cutting. An example would be material B scratches material C, but not material A. Alternatively,
material A scratches material B slightly and scratches material C heavily. Relative hardness of
minerals can be assessed by reference to the Moh's Scale that ranks the ability of materials to
resist scratching by another material. Similar methods of relative hardness assessment are still
commonly used today. The above relative hardness tests are limited in practical use and do not
provide accurate numeric data or scales particularly for modern day metals and materials. The
usual method to achieve a hardness value is to measure the depth or area of an indentation left
by an indenter of a specific shape, with a specific force applied for a specific time.
6-3 Theory
There are three general types of hardness measurements:
 Scratch hardness,
 Indentation hardness, and
 Rebound or dynamic hardness.
Among three only indentation hardness is of major engineering interest for metals. Some of the
scales used for indentation hardness in engineering. Rockwell, Vickers, Brinell, and Knoop - can
be compared using practical conversion tables for a particular material.
6-3-1. Brinell Hardness (HB) Test

This test consists of applying a constant load, usually between 500 and 3000 kgf for a specified
time (10 to 30 s) using 1, 2, 2.5, 5 and 10 mm diameter hardened steel or tungsten carbide balls
on the flat surface of a workpiece as shown in Fig. 6-1. Hardness is determined by taking the
mean diameter of the indentation and calculating the Brinell Hardness Number (BHN or HB) by
dividing the applied load by the surface area of the indentation according to following formula :
35
Where F is load in kgf; D ball diameter in mm; and Di is the diameter of the indentation in mm. A
well structured Brinell hardness number reveals the test conditions, and looks like this, "75 HB
10/500" which means that a Brinell Hardness of 75 was obtained using a 10mm diameter
hardened steel with a 500 kilogram load applied. On tests of extremely hard metals a tungsten
carbide ball is substituted for the steel ball. Compared to the other hardness test methods, the
Brinell ball makes the deepest and widest indentation, so the test averages the hardness over a
wider amount of material, which will more accurately account for multiple grain structures and
any irregularities in the uniformity of the material. This method is the best for achieving the bulk
or macro-hardness of a material, particularly those materials with heterogeneous structures.
However, the BHN is not a satisfactory physical concept since the above equation does not give
the mean pressure over the surface of the indentation. Meyer suggested that a more rational
definition of hardness than that proposed by Brinell, would be one based on the projected area
of the impression rather than the surface area. The mean pressure between surface of the
indenter and the indentation is equal to the load divided by the projected area of the
indentation. Meyer proposed that this mean pressure should be taken as the measure of
hardness. It is referred to as the Meyer hardness.
6-3-1-1 Procedures
1. Set the required load on the dial. Note: For steel and other hard materials the load is 3000 kgf
for 30 seconds. For nonferrous materials a 500 kgf. Load is used for 60 seconds. Thin specimens
should not be tested by this method.
2. Place the specimen on the anvil and apply a preload by bringing the specimen surface to
contact with the ball penetrator.
3. Pull the load knob and apply the appropriate timing at that load level.
4. Release the load by pushing the load knob back into the initial position.
5. Remove the specimen and measure the diameter of the indentation. The Brinell Microscope
reads in millimeters. Take several readings and average them.
6. Look up BHN from chart or calculate from the formula.
6-3-2. Vickers Hardness (HV) Test

The Vickers hardness test method consists of indenting the test material with a diamond
indenter, in the form of a right pyramid with a square base and an angle of 136◦ degrees
between opposite faces subjected to a load of 1 to 100 kgf. The full load is normally applied for
10 to 15 seconds. The two diagonals of the indentation left in the surface of the material after
36
removal of the load are measured using a microscope and their average calculated as shown in
Fig. 6-2. The area of the sloping surface of the indentation is calculated. The Vickers hardness is
the quotient obtained by dividing the kgf load by the square mm area of indentation.
The Vickers hardness should be reported like 800 HV/10, which means a Vickers hardness of
800, was obtained using a 10 kgf force. Several different loading settings give practically identical
hardness numbers on uniform material, which is much better than the arbitrary changing of
scale with the other hardness testing methods. The advantages of the Vickers hardness test are
that extremely accurate readings can be taken, and just one type of indenter is used for all types
of metals and surface treatments. Although thoroughly adaptable and very precise for testing
the softest and hardest of materials, under varying loads, the Vickers machine is a floor standing
unit that is more expensive than the Brinell or Rockwell machines.
6-3-2-1 Procedures
1. Set the required load on the dial.
2. Place the specimen on the anvil.
3. Slowly turn the wheel spokes clockwise. This raises the anvil and sample toward the indenter
tip and apply the appropriate timing at that load level.
4. Release the load by pushing the load indenter back into the initial position.
5. Remove the specimen and measure the two diagonals of the indentation then calculating the
average of them.
37
6. Using the values of applied load and indentation diagonals to calculate the VHN by the above
formula.
6-3-3. Rockwell Hardness (HR)
Test The Rockwell hardness test method consists of indenting the test material with a diamond
cone or hardened steel ball indenter. The indenter is forced into the test material under a
preliminary minor load F0 (Fig. 6-3A) usually 10 kgf. When equilibrium has been reached, an
indicating device, which follows the movements of the indenter and so responds to changes in
depth of penetration of the indenter is set to a datum position. While the preliminary minor
load is still applied an additional major load is applied with resulting increase in penetration (Fig.
6- 3B). When equilibrium has again been reach, the additional major load is removed but the
preliminary minor load is still maintained. Removal of the additional major load allows a partial
recovery, so reducing the depth of penetration (Fig. 6-3C). The permanent increase in depth of
penetration, resulting from the application and removal of the additional major load is used to
calculate the Rockwell hardness number.
Where F0 : preliminary minor load in kgf, F1: additional major load in kgf, F: total load in kgf, e:
permanent increase in depth of penetration due to major load F1 measured in units of 0.002
mm, E: a constant depending on form of indenter: 100 units for diamond indenter, 130 units for
steel ball indenter, HR = Rockwell hardness number.
Advantages of the Rockwell hardness method include the direct Rockwell hardness number
readout and rapid testing time. Disadvantages include many arbitrary non-related scales and
possible effects from the specimen support anvil.
38
6-3-3-1 Procedures
1. Identify the material of each specimen used.
2. Clean the surface of the specimen using an emery cloth, if needed.
3. Position the specimen under the indenter of the instrument.
4. Apply a specific load depending on the material and indenter.
5. The student will need to insert the correct tip and change the amount of load applied for the
Rockwell tests.
6-3-4. The Scleroscope Hardness Test
39
The Scleroscope test consists of dropping a diamond tipped hammer, which falls inside a glass
tube under the force of its own weight from a fixed height, onto the test specimen. The height
of the rebound travel of the hammer is measured on a graduated scale. The scale of the
rebound is arbitrarily chosen and consists on Shore units, divided into 100 parts, which
represent the average rebound from pure hardened high-carbon steel. The scale is continued
higher than 100 to include metals having greater hardness. The Shore Scleroscope measures
hardness in terms of the elasticity of the material and the hardness number depends on the
height to which the hammer rebounds, the harder the material, the higher the rebound.
6-3-5. Microhardness Test

The term microhardness test usually refers to static indentations made with loads not exceeding
1 kgf. The indenter is either the Vickers diamond pyramid (as shown in Fig. 6-2) or the Knoop
elongated diamond pyramid (as shown in Fig. 6-4). The procedure for testing is very similar to
that of the standard Vickers hardness test, except that it is done on a microscopic scale with
higher precision instruments. The surface being tested generally requires a metallographic
finish; the smaller the load used, the higher the surface finish required. Precision microscopes
are used to measure the indentations; these usually have a magnification of around X500 and
measure to an accuracy of +0.5 micrometres. Also with the same observer differences of +0.2
micrometers can usually be resolved. It should, however, be added that considerable care and
experience are necessary to obtain this accuracy. The Knoop hardness number KHN is the ratio
of the load applied to the indenter, F (kgf) to the unrecovered projected area A (mm2 )
Where: F = applied load in kgf, A = the unrecovered projected area of the indentation in mm2, L
= measured length of long diagonal of indentation in mm, C = 0.07028 = Constant of indenter
relating projected area of the indentation to the square of the length of the long diagonal. The
Knoop indenter is a diamond ground to pyramidal form that produces a diamond shaped
indentation having approximate ratio between long and short diagonals of 7:1. The depth of
indentation is about 1/30 of its length. When measuring the Knoop hardness, only the longest
diagonal of the indentation is measured and this is used in the above formula with the load used
to calculate KHN. Tables of these values are usually a more convenient way to look-up KHN
values from the measurements.
40
The Vickers Diamond Pyramid harness number is the applied load (kgf) divided by the surface
area of the indentation (mm2 ). The Vickers Diamond Pyramid indenter is ground in the form of
a squared pyramid with an angle of 136◦ between faces. The depth of indentation is about 1/7
of the diagonal length. When calculating the Vickers Diamond Pyramid hardness number, both
diagonals of the indentation are measured and the mean of these values is used in the above
formula with the load used to determine the value of HV. Tables of these values are usually a
more convenient way to look-up HV values from the measurements.
6-4. Hardness Testing in Estimating other Material Properties

Hardness testing has always appeared attractive as a means of estimating other mechanical
properties of metals. There is an empirical relation between those properties for most steels as
follows:
This equations are used to predict tensile strength of steels by means of hardness
measurement.
6-5. Discussions  Why is a minimum thickness of at least ten times the depth of the impression
required in the Brinell test
References
 ASTM E10- Standard Test Methods for Brinell Hardness of Metallic Materials.
 ASTM B18- Standard Test Methods for Rockwell Hardness and Rockwell Superficial Hardness
of Metallic Materials.
 ASTM E92- Standard Test Methods for Vickers Hardness of Metallic Materials.
41
 ASTM E448- Standard Practice for Scleroscope Hardness Testing of Metallic Materials.
America, 2007.
7. Fatigue Test
7-1 Objective
 Recognizing fatigue as a major cause of failure in mechanical components subject to cyclic
loading.
 Recognizing the stress-life data presentation in the S-N curve and be able to define fatigue
limit, fatigue strength, and fatigue life.
 Recognizing the major characteristics of fatigue fracture surface.
7-2 Introduction
A perusal of the broken parts in almost any scrap yard will reveal that the majority of failures
occur at stresses below the yield strength. This is a result of the phenomenon called fatigue
which has been estimated to be responsible for up to 90% of the in-service part failures which
occur in industry. If a bar of steel is repeatedly loaded and unloaded at say 85% of its’ yield
strength, it will ultimately fail in fatigue if it is loaded through enough cycles. Also, even though
steel ordinarily elongates approximately 30% in a typical tensile test, almost no elongation is
evident in the appearance of fatigue fractures. You can perform a simple fatigue test with your
hands. Take a thin wire and bend it back and forth many times, the wire will break after a
number of cycles depending on the stress level. Increasing the applied load will reduce the
number of cycles required to break the wire and you can test this by increasing the
displacement of your hands during bending.
7-3 Theory
Fatigue is the condition whereby a material cracks or fails as a result of repeated (cyclic) stresses
applied below the ultimate strength of the material. Fatigue failures generally involve three
stages:
 Crack Initiation,
 Crack Propagation
 Fast Fracture.
Fatigue failures often occur quite suddenly with catastrophic results and although most insidious
for metals, polymers and ceramics (except for glasses) are also susceptible to sudden fatigue
failures. Fatigue causes brittle like failures even in normally ductile materials with little gross
plastic deformation occurring prior to fracture. The process occurs by the initiation and
propagation of cracks and, ordinarily, the fracture surface is close to perpendicular to the
direction of maximum tensile stress. Applied stresses may be axial (tension-compression),
flexural (bending) or torsional (twisting) in nature. In general there are three possible fluctuating
42
stress-time modes possible. The simplest is completely reversed constant amplitude where the
alternating stress varies from a maximum tensile stress to a minimum compressive stress of
equal magnitude as shown in Fig. 7-1. The second type, termed repeated constant amplitude,
occurs when the maxima and minima are asymmetrical relative to the zero stress level. Lastly,
the stress level may vary randomly in amplitude and frequency which is merely termed random
cycling.
43
Tensile stresses are normally considered positive and compressive stresses are considered
negative. The Fatigue Life (Nf) of a component is defined by the total number of stress cycles
required to cause failure. Fatigue Life can be separated into three stages where:
 Crack Initiation (Ni): Cycles required to initiate a crack. Generally results from dislocation pile-
ups and/or imperfections such as surface scratches, voids, etc.
 Crack Growth or Propagation (Np): Cycles required to grow the crack in a stable manner to a
critical size. Generally controlled by stress level. Since most common materials contain flaws,
the prediction of crack growth is the most studied aspect of fatigue.  Rapid Fracture: Very
rapid critical crack growth occurs when the crack length reaches a critical value, etc. Since Rapid
Fracture occurs quickly, there is no Rapid Fracture term inthe Fatigue Life expression.
7-3-1. S-N Curve A series of tests are commenced by subjecting a specimen to the stress cycling
at a relatively large maximum stress amplitude (σmax), usually on the order of two thirds of the
static tensile strength; the number of cycles to failure is counted. This procedure is repeated on
other specimens at progressively decreasing maximum stress amplitudes. Data are plotted as
stress S versus the logarithm of the number N of cycles to failure for each of the specimens. The
values of S are normally taken as stress amplitudes on occasion. Two distinct types of S–N
behavior are observed, which are represented schematically in Fig. 7-2. As these plots indicate,
44
the higher the magnitude of the stress, the smaller the number of cycles the material is capable
of sustaining before failure. For some ferrous (iron base) and titanium alloys, the S–N curve (Fig.
7-2 a) becomes horizontal at higher N values; or there is a limiting stress level, called the fatigue
limit (also sometimes the endurance limit), below which fatigue failure will not occur. This
fatigue limit represents the largest value of fluctuating stress that will not cause failure for
essentially an infinite number of cycles. For many steels, fatigue limits range between 35% and
60% of the tensile strength. Most nonferrous alloys (e.g., aluminum, copper, magnesium) do not
have a fatigue limit, in that the S– N curve continues its downward trend at increasingly greater
N values (Fig. 7-2 b).Thus, fatigue will ultimately occur regardless of the magnitude of the stress.
For these materials, the fatigue response is specified as fatigue strength, which is defined as the
stress level at which failure will occur for some specified number of cycles (e.g., 107 cycles). The
determination of fatigue strength is also demonstrated in Fig. 7-2 b. Another important
parameter that characterizes a material’s fatigue behavior is fatigue life. It is the number of
cycles to cause failure at a specified stress level, as taken from the S–N plot (Fig. 7-2 b).
Unfortunately, there always exists considerable scatter in fatigue data—that is, a variation in the
measured N value for a number of specimens tested at the same stress level. This variation may
lead to significant design uncertainties when fatigue life and/or fatigue limit (or strength) are
being considered. The scatter in results is a consequence of the fatigue sensitivity to a number
of test and material parameters that are impossible to control precisely. These parameters
include specimen fabrication and surface preparation, metallurgical variables, specimen
alignment in the apparatus, mean stress, and test frequency. Fatigue S–N curves similar to those
shown in Fig. 7-2 represent "best fit" curves that have been drawn through average-value data
points. It is a little unsettling to realize that approximately one-half of the specimens tested
actually failed at stress levels lying nearly 25% below the best fitted curve (as determined on the
basis of statistical treatments). Several statistical techniques have been developed to specify
fatigue life and fatigue limit in terms of probabilities. One convenient way of representing data
treated in this manner is performed with a series of constant probability curves, several of which
are plotted in Fig. 7-3.
The P value associated with each curve represents the probability of failure. For example, at a
stress of 200 MPa, we would expect 1% of the specimens to fail at about 106 cycles and 50% to
fail at about 2*107 cycles, and so on. Remember that S–N curves represented in the literature
45
are normally average values, unless noted otherwise. The fatigue behaviors represented in Fig.
7- 2 (a) and (b) may be classified into two domains. One is associated with relatively high loads
that produce not only elastic strain but also some plastic strain during each cycle. Consequently,
fatigue lives are relatively short; this domain is termed low-cycle fatigue and occurs at less than
about 104 to 105 cycles. For lower stress levels wherein deformations are totally elastic, longer
lives result. This is called high-cycle fatigue inasmuch as relatively large numbers of cycles are
required to produce fatigue failure. High-cycle fatigue is associated with fatigue lives greater
than about 104 to 105 cycles.
7-3-2. Fatigue Fracture Fatigue failure consists of two stages: crack initiating and crack
propagation until total fracture. For machine components containing no pre-existing cracks, the
majority of fatigue life is spent in initiating or starting fatigue cracks and the fatigue process is
described as initiationcontrolled. Examples of these include crank shafts, gear teeth, and
rotating shafts or axles. On the other hand, large structures or welded parts almost always
contain pre-existing cracks such as in bridges, ships, aircraft fuselage, and pressure vessels. In
such structures, the majority of fatigue life is spent in growing a pre-existing crack to a critical
size and then to final fracture. The fatigue process in this case is described propagation-
controlled. In this laboratory session we will be concerned only with fatigue testing of un-
cracked specimens where most of fatigue life is spent in the initiation stage. Engineering
structures and components often contain stress concentrations such as notches. Fatigue cracks
almost always start at regions of high stress concentrations. For example, Fig. 7-4 shows a
fatigue crack starting from a keyhole in a rotating shaft. Fracture surfaces of components failed
by fatigue are usually flat and perpendicular to the applied stress and often show features called
beach mark ridges as shown in Fig. 7-3. These marks are positive indication for fatigue failure
and they represent the crack fronts during loading. Furthermore, fatigue failure is brittle in
nature and does not involve gross plastic deformation even in metals that behave in a ductile
manner under static loading. Hence, fatigue failure occurs suddenly and can cause catastrophic
Consequences
46
7-4 Procedures Because fatigue testing is time consuming and requires a large number of
specimens to generate an S-N curve, we will limit testing to few samples as a demonstration.
The following procedure is followed: 1. Measure the dimension of the specimen provided to you
by your instructor. 2. Write down the surface finish of the specimen. 3. Mount the specimen in
the fatigue machine. 4. Record the applied stress according to tensile properties. 5. Zero the
counter. 6. Record the fixed frequency and stress rate. 7. Start the machine and wait until the
specimen is broken. 8. Write down the number of cycles to failure. 9. Repeat the test with
different loads. 10. Plot the S-N curve for the same material.

 Recording the applied stress and the resulting cyclic in the table below:
Then plot the S-N curve and determine the fatigue life, fatigue limit, (or fatigue strength). 
Establish the power law modeling for this alloy as :
i.e, determine the model coefficients C and b using best-fitting technique.
7-7 Discussions
 What are the main factors affecting the fatigue properties? And, How?
 Dose there exist other mathematical models for fatigue test behavior? Write down those
expression with explanations.
References
47
 ASTM E466- Standard Practice for Conducting Force Controlled Constant Amplitude Axial
Fatigue Tests of Metallic Materials.
 ASTM E467- Standard Practice for Verification of Constant Amplitude Dynamic Forces in an
Axial Fatigue Testing System.
 ASTM E468- Standard Practice for Presentation of Constant Amplitude Fatigue Test Results for
Metallic Materials.
America, 2007.
8. Creep Test
8-1 Objective
Creep testing aims to investigate plastic deformation of a material when subjected to a constant
load, for sufficient period of time, or stress at a high temperature.
8-2 Introduction
Creep is a time-dependent permanent deformation of a material under constant loading at high
temperatures or for long time. When metals experience plastic deformation or has been
mechanically deformed at room temperature, strain hardening or work hardening takes place.
We have already encountered this phenomenon from the stress-strain curve obtained from
tensile testing of materials. When the stress is beyond the yield stress, work hardening occurs
due to multiplication and movement of dislocations. Conversely, annealing of the metals after
have been plastically deformed allows annihilation of dislocations, thus reducing the strength of
the metals. However, when metals are continuously and plastically deformed at high
temperature, both work hardening and annealing take place simultaneously, and creep in
metals will result.
8-3 Theory
Generally, metals creep at a temperature above approximately 0.4 Tm (Tm is the absolute
melting temperature of the metal). Therefore, low melting point metals will creep at lower
temperature in comparison to high melting point metals. This is for example; lead having its
melting point of 321 oC will creep at room temperature. Iron on the other hand having a higher
melting point will creep at the temperature of approximately 650oC. Engineering applications
such as steam engines, oil refinery and chemical industry normally operate at temperatures
around 500oC. The operating temperatures of the aeroengines, space rockets missiles are even
higher (around 1000oC), which necessitate materials with high creep resistance. Due to a
significant degradation of mechanical properties with time, structural materials can generally
withstand mechanical loading at high temperatures in a certain period of time (strong time
dependence of strength). Maintenance or replacing of new materials is therefore necessary for
safety reasons. Unlike creep, mechanical loading at room temperature however do not exhibit
strong dependence of hardness or strength with time. Furthermore, it should be noted that
48
creep testing is noticeably different from high-temperature tensile testing. For example, a high
temperature tensile test requires less time to actually finish the test, i.e., testing of materials
used for missile cases. Creep properties on the other hand are necessary for materials used for
steam pipelines. The creep test in this case might require 10,000 hrs to finish the test.
Therefore, creep study is required for materials subjected to high temperatures in extended
period of time to prevent creep failure during service operations
In a creep test, a tensile specimen (with similar dimensions as a tensile test specimen) is
subjected to a constant load where the temperature is maintained constant. The resulting
deformation or strain is measured and plotted as a function of elapsed time. Fig. 8-1 shows a
schematic creep curve for a metal tested at constant load and temperature until rupture.
Metals, polymers, and ceramics all show similar strain-time behaviors. The creep curve in Fig. 8-
1 demonstrates three regions of strain-time behavior:
 The primary creep or transient creep exhibits a decreasing creep rate with time as shown in
Fig. 8-1. A very sharp increase in the initial stage is observed with the original strain, εo, taking
place before the creep rate starts to decrease. The creep rate then diminishes until reaching the
secondary creep region as detailed in Fig. 8-1. This diminished creep rate in the primary creep
region accounts from work hardening mechanism of the metal. Multiplication and interaction of
dislocations rule out the annealing effect at this stage, resulting in increasing the creep
resistance of the metal. Metals, such as lead that can creep readily at room temperature, exhibit
an obvious primary creep.
Beyond the primary stage, the creep rate is reaching a steady state where the creep rate is said
to be relatively constant with time and gives the minimum creep rate of all the three regions.
This minimum creep rate is used to represent the creep rate of the metal being tested at
particular test temperature and load. The constant creep rate is due to balancing of strain
hardening and annealing (recovery) processes according to the applied stress and temperature.
The amount of dislocations being generated by work hardening is equal to the number of
dislocations being annealed out.
49
The secondary creep exhibits a relatively linear relationship between strain and time. The
secondary creep rate depends strongly on stress and temperature. For engineering design point
of view, materials subjected to creep in operation should limit its use in the secondary creep
stage and should never enter the tertiary creep stage. Since the secondary creep gives the
longest operating time without creep failure, creep rate is good candidates for engineering
applications subjected to creep failure.
 The tertiary creep region gives a rapid creep rate approaching failure. This is due to the
formation of necking. Load bearing capability decreases due to the simultaneous reduction in
the cross-sectional area of the specimen, which is related to local stress acting on this area.
Furthermore, tertiary creep is associated with microstructural alterations due to increasing
temperature such as coarsening of precipitate phases, recrystallization and diffusion of phases.
These mechanisms effectively increase the tertiary creep rate, and eventually leads to fracture
under creep.
However, factors influencing the shape of the creep curve depend on the levels of the stress and
temperatures involved. If the temperature is remained constant, the creep curves will shift
upward and to the left with increasing applied stresses as shown in Fig. 8-2. Similarly, if the
creep test is carried out at various temperatures but at a constant stress level, the creep rate
will increase with increasing temperatures.
Plot of creep rate and strain in a log-log scale as illustrated in Fig. 8-3 shows a curve which can
be again divided into three stages. It can be noticed that the second stage exhibits a constant
relationship of creep rate and strain while the first and third stages shows decreasing and
increasing creep rates with strain respectively. Since the stress and temperature are kept
50
constant, the variation of the creep rate is therefore owing to microstructural alteration due to
strain and increasing time. This type of curve is normally applied for engineering design.
8-3-1. Fracture at elevated temperature

High temperature deformation of metals can initiate a crack, which leads to final failure. Slip
planes operating at ambient temperature require relatively lower strength within the grain than
those at the grain boundaries. Cracks are then initiated at inclusions or defects, which act stress
concentration and eventually cause transgranular brittle fracture. At higher temperatures, grain-
boundary movement is prevalent, giving the strength of the grain boundaries to be lower than
that of grain interiors. This in turn results in grain boundary fracture or intergranular fracture at
high temperatures. The fracture energy is lower in this case. Fig. 8-4 shows fracture mechanism
map of nickel at various levels of stresses and temperatures where the homologous
temperature is the test temperature divided by the melting point of the metal. The fracture
mechanism map is useful for the prediction of fracture mechanisms in engineering materials at
particular stress and temperature ranges.
51
8-4 Procedures
1. Measure and record lead specimen dimensions for the calculation of stress and strain from
the creep test.
52
2. Fit a lead specimen on a creep test machine (which available in the lab.) and a dial gauge
positioned in a mid range of the specimen gauge length for the calculation of specimen
extension (creep strain).
3. Hung the weights of known values at the end of the sample to determine the constant
applied stress. Specimen extension will be read on the dial gauge and time is recorded using a
stopped watch.
4. When the weight is left hanging, the specimen will be immediately strained. The time will be
recorded at every specimen extension of 0.5 mm. Repeat the test using a new specimen having
a similar test condition (stress and temperature) to give an average value of the creep rate
obtained.
5. Repeat the creep tests but now using different weights provided (to give different stress
levels) to investigate the effect of stress levels on the creep rate of the specimen.
6. Construct the creep curves from the obtained experimental data.
7. Repeat the creep tests but now using different temperature to investigate the effect of
temperature on the creep rate of the specimen.
8-5. Results and Calculations:

 By using the dial gauge and stopped watch the following data was recorded:
 Prepare the “Fracture mechanism map” for lead, and check readings of your experimental
homologous temperature (T/Tm) vs. creep strain ratio (σc/E) and discussed your result with this
map.
8-7 Discussions
 What would have happened if this experiment was set at temperatures below subzero and
water boiling point?
References
 ASTM E193- Standard Test Methods for Conducting Creep, Creep-Rupture, and StressRupture
Tests of Metallic Materials.
America, 2007.
53
9. Buckling Test
9-1 Objective
 To observe the buckling behavior of columns and estimate their buckling loads.  To measure
the lateral deflection of the columns during axial compression.
 To compare the analytical and experimental values of buckling loads of columns.
The columns will be tested within their elastic ranges. Three similar columns will be tested, all
with different end conditions (pinned-pinned, clamped-pinned, and clamped-clamped).
9-2 Introduction
Columns are defined as relatively long, slender member subjected to compressive stresses. The
most common example of a column is the vertical supporting member of a building. This brings
into account why the study of columns is so critical: there is a large human safety factor
involved.
9-3 Theory
When a perfect column is subjected to a compressive axial force as shown in Fig. 1, the only
deformation that takes place is a shortening of the column. For low values of P, if the column
were to be deflected laterally by a force perpendicular to the column, and the lateral force
thereafter removed, the column would return to its straight position, even with the force P
remaining in place. This indicates a condition of stability. If the load P were increased, there is a
value of P for which, when the lateral load is removed, the column would remain in the
deformed shape. This condition is referred to as buckling and the column is said to have failed
from a structural standpoint. Under compression above a critical load (Pcr), a column may
experience a sudden change in its configuration. This phenomenon is called column buckling as
shown in Fig. 9-1
54
9-3-1. Euler formula

In one way, Euler’s formula (9-1) gives the expression to determine this critical load.
Where Prc is the critical load, E is the modulus elasticity of the material, I is moment of inertia,
and L is the length of the material (column).
9-4 Procedure
1. Start off with the fixed-fixed column.
2. Measure the diameter (d) of the test specimen at five different locations, averaging these
values to get an average diameter.
3. Measure the length (L) of the specimen (usually from one end of the rod to the other,
including the ball bearings in the case of the pinned conditions). Only one measurement is
required.
4. Next, calculate the theoretical (or Euler's) critical load (Pcr) for the specimen.
5. Unlock the control panel by turning the key in the counter-clockwise direction.
6. Switch on the machine by pressing the switch located at the rear end of the machine.
7. The specimen is first gripped by the upper hydraulic grip. The loader will operate this grip.
8. Press the “START” button to start the test and observe the load vs. displacement plot.
9. Repeating this procedure for the other two end conditions.
9-5 Calculations
 Plot the relationship between applied load and deflection.  Compare the actual and the
calculated (theoretical) results obtained in a table such as the one below :
55
9-6 Discussions
 Compare how the different end conditions resisted buckling in the columns. What
applications, in real life, could all three of these different columns be used for?
 What is meant by the “buckling” load? Discuss.
References
 R.C. Hibbeler “Mechanics of Materials,” Prentice-Hall
NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
Nondestructive testing (NDT) has been defined as comprising those test methods used to
examine an object, material or system without impairing its future usefulness.
56
10-Metallography Specimen Preparation & Examination
10-1 Objective:
 To learn and to gain experience in the preparation of metallographic specimens. Objective: 
To examine and analyze the microstructures of metals and metallic alloys.
10-2 Introduction:
Proper preparation of metallographic specimens to determine microstructure and content
requires that a rigid step-by-step process be followed. In sequence, the steps include sectioning,
mounting, course grinding, fine grinding, polishing, etching and microscopic examination.
Specimens must be kept clean and preparation procedure carefully followed in order to reveal
accurate microstructures.
10-3 Theory
Metallography consists of the study of the constitution and structure of metals and alloys. Much
can be learned through specimen examination with the naked eye, but more refined techniques
require magnification and preparation of the material's surface. Optical microscopy is sufficient
for general purpose examination; advanced examination and research laboratories often
contain electron microscopes (Scanning Electron Microscopic "SEM" and Transmission Electron
Microscopic "TEM"). Incorrect techniques in preparing a sample may result in altering the true
microstructure and will most likely lead to erroneous conclusions. It necessarily follows that the
microstructure should not be altered. Hot or cold working can occur during the specimen
preparation process if the metallurgist is not careful. Expertise at the methods employed to
produce high-quality metallographic samples requires training and practice. The basic
techniques can be learned through patient persistence in a matter of hours. This module takes
the student through the metallographic sample preparation process step-by-step with
demonstrations and explanations of sectioning, mounting, course and fine grinding, polishing,
etching and microscopic examination.
10-4-Procedure:
Preparation of metallographic examination is consist of the following steps: Procedure:
• Selection of Metallographic Specimens
Specimens should be chosen from locations most likely to reveal the maximum variations within
the material under study. For example, specimens could be taken from a casting in the zones
wherein maximum segregation might be expected to occur as well as specimens from sections
where segregation could be at a minimum. In the examination of strip or wire, test specimens
could be taken from each end of the coils.
• Size of Metallographic Specimens
For convenience, specimens to be grinned and polished for metallographic examination are
generally not more than about 12 to 25 mm (0.5 to 1.0 in.) square, or approximately 12 to 25
mm in diameter if the material is cylindrical. The height of the specimen should be no greater
than necessary for convenient handling during preparation. Larger specimens are generally
57
more difficult to prepare. Specimens that are, fragile, oddly shaped or too small to be handled
readily during polishing should be mounted to ensure a surface satisfactory for microscopical
study.
• Cutting of Metallographic Specimens
In cutting the metallographic specimen from the main body of the material, care must be
exercised to minimize altering the structure of the metal. Three common types of sectioning are
as follows:
58
• Cleanliness of Metallographic Specimens Cleanliness during specimen preparation is essential.

All greases, oils, coolants and residue from cutoff blades on the specimen should be removed by
some suitable organic solvent.
59
• Mounting of Metallographic Specimens There are many instances where it will be

advantageous to mount the specimen prior for grinding and polishing. Mounting of the
specimen is usually performed on small, fragile, or oddly shaped specimens, fractures, or in
instances where the specimen edges are to be examined. Specimens can be mounted by
different ways:
 Mechanical Mounting: Strip and sheet specimens may be mounted by binding or clamping
several specimens into a pack held together by two end pieces and two bolts. The specimens
should be tightly bound together to prevent absorption and subsequent exudation of polishing
materials or etchants as shown in fig4.
 Thermal mounting: The sample is embedded in thermosetting plastics at elevated

temperatures and pressure as shown in fig.5.
 Cold Mounting: Where a liquid mixture of two or more polymers solidifies at room
temperature after being poured into a mold containing the specimen. Cold mounting
compounds are relatively easy to mix and use and many mounts can be made at one time.
Resins for cold mounts include epoxies, acrylics, and polyester as shown in fig.6
60
• Grinding of Metallographic Specimens

Grinding removes the damages on the surface produced by sectioning. Grinding also produced
damages which must be minimized so that subsequent grinding with finer abrasives. At the end
of grinding phase, the only grinding damages present must be from the last grinding step. Such
damages will be removed by polishing. Grinding can be done in a number of ways, ranging from
rubbing the specimen on a stationary piece of abrasive paper to the use of automatic devices.
The choice of method depends on the number and type of specimens to be done, financial
considerations and requirements such as flatness and uniformity.
Abrasive paper (covered with silicon carbide grits). Commonly, a series of abrasive paper is used,
from coarse to fine one. Table 1 show the approximate median particle diameter for a given size
in micrometers. The initial grit size depends on the surface roughness and depth of damage
from sectioning.
 Surfaces cut by abrasive cutoff saw start with 120 to 240 grits.
 Surfaces cut by EMD or diamond saw start with 320 to 400 grits.
61
• Polishing of Metallographic Specimens

Polishing is usually distinguished from grinding by the use of loose abrasive ( ≤6μm) embedded
in an appropriately lubricated supporting surface. The choice of abrasive, lubricant, and
polishing surface support is often specific to the metal and the object of the investigation.
Polishing can be divided into rough (coarse) and fine (final) stages. Coarse polishing: abrasives in
the range of 30 ~ 3 μm using diamond grits of several micrometers. Fine polishing: abrasives in
the range of ≤ 1 μm using diamond grits of 1 μm, followed by 0.3 ~ 0.05 μm alumina slurries.
The grinding and polishing operations may be conducted by manual or by automated methods
(preferred):
 Manual Methods: when grinding manually, the specimen should be moved back and forth
across the paper to allow for even wear. Between grinding steps, the specimen should be
rotated 45-90°. Manual polishing methods consist of holding the specimen by hand against an
abrasive-charged rotating wheel and moving the specimen in a circular path around the wheel
against the direction of rotation of the wheel as shown in fig.7. The specimen should be held
firmly in contact with the wheel.
 Automated Methods: many styles of automated specimen preparation machinery are

available. Most units can perform grinding and polishing steps. Many use holders capable of
accommodating multiple specimens as shown in fig.8. Major advantages of automated grinding
62
and polishing procedures are the consistent quality of specimen preparation and the substantial
decrease in time. Therefore, automated techniques are recommended over manual techniques.
Most of the devices for automated grinding and polishing move the specimen around a rotating
wheel covered with abrasive so that the specimen follows an epicycloids path.
• Etching of Metallographic Specimens

Using chemical to dissolve selectively the surface of materials in order to reveal the
inhomogeneous nature in microscopic scale. Etching is basically a controlled corrosion process
resulting from electrolytic action between surface area of different potential. Electrolytic activity
results from local physical or chemical heterogeneities which render some features anodic and
others cathodic under the specific etching conditions. Common chemical etchants have three
components:
 A corrosive agent (acids).
 A modifier (alcohol, glycerin…).
 An oxidizer (hydrogen peroxide, Fe3+, Cu2+…).
Table (4) shows some of these chemical solutions. After etching process the specimen should be
washed with water then with cohole to remove any chemical solution may be remind on the
specimen surface to avoid pitting corrosion, then the specimen must be dried with warm air to
prepare the specimen for microscopic examination.
63
• Microscopic Examination
Initial microscopic viewing should be done utilizing a stereomicroscope, which reveals a three-
dimensional scanning of the specimen surface. The specimen is placed on the stage of the
microscope so that its surface is perpendicular to the optical axis. Detailed viewing is done with
a Metallurgical Microscope. A metallurgical microscope has a system of lenses (objectives and
eyepiece) so that different magnifications (25X to 1000X) can be achieved. The important
characteristics of the microscope are
 magnification,
 resolution and
 flatness of field.
The resultant magnification is the product of the magnifying power of the objective and that of
the ocular. Scanning Electron Microscopes (SEMs) are capable of magnifications up to 20,000X
and Transmission Electron Microscopes (TEMs) are utilized to view at magnifications up to
100,000X for highly detailed microstructural study.
Microscopic Examination
Initial microscopic viewing should be done utilizing a stereomicroscope, which reveals a three-
dimensional scanning of the specimen surface. The specimen is placed on the stage of the
microscope so that its surface is perpendicular to the optical axis. Detailed viewing is done with
a Metallurgical Microscope. A metallurgical microscope has a system of lenses (objectives and
eyepiece) so that different magnifications (25X to 1000X) can be achieved. The important
characteristics of the microscope are: (1) magnification, (2) resolution and (3) flatness of field.
The resultant magnification is the product of the magnifying power of the objective and that of
the ocular. Scanning Electron Microscopes (SEMs) are capable of magnifications up to 20,000X
64
and Transmission Electron Microscopes (TEMs) are utilized to view at magnifications up to

100,000X for highly detailed microstructural study.
Discussion
1. Briefly (one concise sentence each) describe the steps involved in the preparation of a
metallographic sample: Sectioning, Mounting Course, Grinding Fine, Grinding Polishing ,Etching
2. What is the purpose of etching metallographic samples?
3. Why are metallographic samples sometimes mounted in plastic?
65

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Middle Technical University Engineering

Technical College – Baghdad Fuel and Energy

In general, the reports should be arranged in the following order:

4. Experimental Data and Result

5. Discussion and Conclusions

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS

Mechanical testing methods

1-3-1 Engineering Stress-Strain Curve

With most materials,

1-3-2 True Stress-Strain Curve

R: Necking radius (mm) D: Diameter at fracture zone (mm) So = ௙

1-3-3 Mathematical Expressions for the Flow Curve

1. Preparation of the tensile test machine.

2. Measurement of dimensions of tensile test specimens.

3. Gage length marking of tensile test specimens.

4. Zeroing of the testing machine.

5. Gripping of the test specimen.

1-6 Results and Calculations

 Yield strength.  Ultimate tensile strength.  Young's modulus.  Ductility.  Toughness.

 Strength coefficient.  Strain hardening exponent

Discuss or explain each of the followings:

 ASM Handbook, "Mechanical Testing and Evaluation", Vol. 8, 2000.

2-3-1. Engineering stress-strain curve

2-3-1. Engineering stress-strain curve

2-3-2. True stress-strain curve

2-4 Mathematical Expressions for the Flow Curve:

 Buckling is a mode of failure characterized by an unstable lateral material deflection caused by

2-5-1. Specimens in Solid Cylindrical For

2-5-2. Rectangular or Sheet-Type Specimens

1. Record the initial dimensions of the specimen.

2. Lubricate the end faces of the specimen.

2-7 Results and Calculations

The flexural strain εf is calculated from equation 3-8:

3-5 Results and Calculations

Where D1 ; is the outer diameter of the tube, mm

4-3-1 Determine the Poisson’s Ratio, , using torsional stress-strain relationships

4-3-2. Types of torsion failures

4-5 Results and Calculations

5-3-1 Ductile-to-Brittle Transition

6-3-1. Brinell Hardness (HB) Test

6-3-2. Vickers Hardness (HV) Test

6-3-4. The Scleroscope Hardness Test

6-3-5. Microhardness Test

6-4. Hardness Testing in Estimating other Material Properties

7-5 Results and Calculations

i.e, determine the model coefficients C and b using best-fitting technique.

8-3-1. Fracture at elevated temperature

8-5. Results and Calculations:

9-3-1. Euler formula

 R.C. Hibbeler “Mechanics of Materials,” Prentice-Hall

10-Metallography Specimen Preparation & Examination

• Cleanliness of Metallographic Specimens Cleanliness during specimen preparation is essential.

• Mounting of Metallographic Specimens There are many instances where it will be

 Thermal mounting: The sample is embedded in thermosetting plastics at elevated

• Grinding of Metallographic Specimens

• Polishing of Metallographic Specimens

 Automated Methods: many styles of automated specimen preparation machinery are

• Etching of Metallographic Specimens

and Transmission Electron Microscopes (TEMs) are utilized to view at magnifications up to

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