ADDIS ABABA

INSTITUTE
OF

TECHNOLOGY

MECHANICAL AND INDUSTRIAL

ENGINEERING

ENGINEERING MATERIAL 1

LAB REPORT

By: Kaleb Baraki

ID: ATR/8103/08
Date of submission: 13/01/17 Section: 04
Content

 Preface
 Introduction
 Tensile testing
 Theory
 Objective
 Material and equipment
 Procedure
 Experimental result
 Calculation
 conclusion

 Hardness testing
 Theory
 Objective
 Material and equipment
 Procedure
 Experimental result
 conclusion

 Impact testing
 Theory
 Objective
 Material and equipment
 Procedure
 Calculation

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  conclusion

 Torsion testing
 Introduction
 Theory

 Fatigue test
 Theory

PREFACE

Materials in real life applications don’t tend to act like what we see in
theory. They face different situation where they might fail, and in
mechanical engineering this failure could mean the smallest fracture in
screws to the catastrophic failure in airplanes and submarines. So we
need a laboratory sample situation test for all engineering materials to
suit them in their working condition. Not only this, to improve the
functionality of a material we need to have the full grasp of their
behavior s in different situation, so that we can create new property that
can suit into different situation, for this and other reasons wettest all
kinds of mechanical properties of material in a metallurgical laboratory.

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The testing will help us predict the scenarios that the tested materials
will be in help us how to manipulate material properties to suit the
necessary working environment criteria.

Introduction
Strength of materials is one of the foundation level subjects of
Mechanical Engineering, which lays foundation for design related
subjects like Theory of Machines, Machine Design. Study of the subject
is useful to understand various actions like tension, compression, shear,
bending. It is essential for designing of various machine components

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subjected to various actions and heat treatment, so that components
should be able to bear the ultimate load without failure during the
service period.

In Strength of Materials laboratory testing of materials under tension,

compression, shear, bending in part will be done and failure patterns will
be observed. Mechanical properties like ductility, hardness, toughness,
elongation, brittleness will be understood and their variation with respect
to strength of the material will be observed. Concept to be developed
through this laboratory work- Stress, strain, elasticity, plasticity,
hardness, toughness, ductility, modulus of elasticity, modulus of rigidity,
bulk modulus, principal stress & strain energy.

These tests are: 1. Tensile test

2. Hardness test

3. Impact test

4. Torsion test

5. Fatigue test

Tensile Test
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Introduction

Tensile testing is one of the most fundamental tests for engineering, and provides
valuable information about a material and its associated properties. These
properties can be used for design and analysis of engineering structures, and for
developing new materials that better suit a specified use. Tensile tests are
performed for several reasons. The results of tensile tests are used in selecting
materials for engineering applications. The tensile test is a common test performed
on metals, wood, plastics, and most other materials. Tensile loads are those that
tend to pull the specimen apart, putting the specimen in tension. They can be
performed on any specimen of known cross-sectional area and gage length to
which a uniform tensile load can be applied. Tensile tests are used to determine the
mechanical behavior of materials under static or stretch loading. Three
fundamental mechanical properties of metals are the elastic modulus (E), the yield
point and the ultimate strength. This report contains the results of an experiment to
determine the elastic modulus, yield point, and ultimate strength of 1040 sheet
metal.

Theory

The tensile testing is carried out by applying longitudinal or axial load at a specific
extension rate to a standard tensile specimen with known dimensions (gauge length
and cross sectional area perpendicular to the load direction) till failure. The applied
tensile load and extension are recorded during the test for the calculation of stress
and strain. A tensile test involves mounting the specimen in a machine. When
forces are applied to materials, they deform in reaction to those forces. The
magnitude of the deformation for a constant force depends on the geometry of the
materials. Likewise, the magnitude of the force required to cause a given

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deformation, depends on the geometry of the material. For these reasons, the
tensile force is recorded as a function of the increase in gage length.
Stress is mathematically defined as;
σ (stress) = F/A
For most material in tensile testing, it is assumed that in the beginning these
materials will follow Hooke’s law, where the stress- strain ratio is constant .this
constant which is the slope of the stress-strain diagram measures the stiffness value
of the material and termed as modulus of elasticity.

Objective:

 To know how the tensile test is used to establish mechanical properties.

 To know the use of the tensile test in quality control.
 To know how the tensile test is used to measure engineering and scientific data
such as strain hardening rates, modulus of elasticity, tensile strength, ductility,
fracture stress and energy to fracture a tensile specimen.
 To know how to compute engineering stress and strain and true stress and
strain.

The aim of this particular experiment is to determine the mechanical

properties of 1040 sheet metal. These properties include yield strength modulus of
elasticity, ultimate tensile strength, percent elongation, area reduction and
resilience.

Apparatus

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 Universal testing machine
 Caliper
 Scriber
 Specimen (1040-ASIS)

Specimen

Procedure
1. Each specimen is measured with the venire caliper to determine the
diameter of the cross section and the gauge length is determined

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 2. After determining the gauge length, it is marked with scriber
3. The specimen is loaded into the mouths of the universal testing
machine (UTM). So that it is equally spaced between the two clamps
4. The load was applied slowly
5. After the material fails (breaks), it is detached from the jaws and the
final measurement of the gauge length and final area is taken.

Obtained Data

Strain stress(MPa) Strain Stress(MPa) Strain Stress(MPa)

0.000333333 0.819672131 0.0585 159.8360656 0.145166667 319.6721311
0.0005 0.819672131 0.058833333 163.9344262 0.145333333 319.6721311
0.000666667 0.819672131 0.059333333 168.0327869 0.152 323.7704918
0.000833333 0.819672131 0.059833333 172.1311475 0.152166667 323.7704918
0.001 0.819672131 0.060333333 176.2295082 0.152333333 323.7704918
0.001166667 1.639344262 0.061 180.3278689 0.1525 323.7704918
0.001333333 1.639344262 0.0615 184.4262295 0.152666667 323.7704918
0.0015 2.459016393 0.062 184.4262295 0.152833333 323.7704918
0.001666667 2.459016393 0.062166667 188.5245902 0.153 323.7704918
0.001833333 2.459016393 0.062833333 192.6229508 0.153166667 323.7704918
0.002 3.278688525 0.063 196.7213115 0.153333333 323.7704918
0.002166667 4.098360656 0.063833333 200.8196721 0.1535 323.7704918
0.002333333 4.098360656 0.064833333 204.9180328 0.153666667 323.7704918
0.0025 4.098360656 0.065333333 209.0163934 0.153833333 323.7704918
0.002666667 4.918032787 0.065666667 213.1147541 0.154 323.7704918
0.002833333 4.918032787 0.065833333 213.1147541 0.154166667 323.7704918
0.003 4.918032787 0.066 213.1147541 0.161 327.8688525
0.003166667 5.737704918 0.067166667 217.2131148 0.161166667 327.8688525
0.0175 22.13114754 0.103 283.6065574 0.305666667 349.1803279
0.017666667 22.13114754 0.103166667 283.6065574 0.346166667 345.9016393

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0.017833333 22.13114754 0.103333333 283.6065574 0.346333333 345.9016393
0.018 22.95081967 0.105166667 286.8852459 0.3465 345.9016393
0.018166667 22.95081967 0.105333333 286.8852459 0.346666667 345.9016393
0.018333333 22.95081967 0.1055 286.8852459 0.346833333 345.9016393
0.0185 22.95081967 0.105666667 286.8852459 0.347 345.9016393
0.018666667 23.7704918 0.105833333 286.8852459 0.347166667 345.9016393
0.018833333 23.7704918 0.108166667 290.9836066 0.347333333 345.9016393
0.019 24.59016393 0.108333333 290.9836066 0.3475 345.9016393
0.019166667 24.59016393 0.1085 290.9836066 0.347666667 345.9016393
0.019333333 24.59016393 0.108666667 290.9836066 0.347833333 345.9016393
0.0195 25.40983607 0.108833333 290.9836066 0.35 342.6229508
0.019666667 25.40983607 0.109 290.9836066 0.350166667 342.6229508
0.019833333 26.2295082 0.109166667 290.9836066 0.350333333 342.6229508
0.02 27.04918033 0.109333333 290.9836066 0.3505 342.6229508
0.020166667 27.86885246 0.111666667 295.0819672 0.350666667 342.6229508
0.020333333 27.86885246 0.111833333 295.0819672 0.352 341.8032787

stress - strain diagram

300

250

200

150

100

50

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18

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 4
3.5 F(KN)
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

Outcomes:
Lf = 67mm

Wf = 9mm

Tf = 6mm

Ultimate Tensile Stress=345 MPa

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Calculation and analysis

Percentage elongation = ((57-50)/50) x 100%

=14%

Area reduction= ((12.5x1-9x1)/12.5x1) x 100%

= 28%

Strain=7/50
0.14

Modulus of elasticity= (3.46/12.5)/0.14

=1.97GPa

Conclusion

Because the material didn’t break at yield point it is safe to say that the specimen is
a ductile material.

Hardness Test
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Introduction:

Hardness is one of the most basic mechanical properties of engineering materials.

Hardness test is practical and provide a quick assessment and the result can
be used as a good indicator for material selections. This is for example, the
selection of materials suitable for metal forming dies or cutting tools. Hardness test
is also employed for quality assurance in parts which require high wear resistance
such as gears. The majority of engineers favor the hardness testing methods called:
Rockwell, and Brinell. Tensile strengths will be predicted based on the hardness
measurements and compared to the actual strengths obtained.

Theory:

Hardness is resistance to indentation under an applied load, which corresponds

with deformation of the material under a load. Hardness is related to ductility,
tensile strength, and many other material properties, but does not have a defined
relationship with any of them. As such, the hardness test is by and large used to
compare the hardness values of different materials and not in calculations to
determine other properties.

Rockwell hardness test: Rockwell hardness test is commonly used among

industrial practices. The Rockwell testing machine offers a quick and practical
operation and can also minimize errors arising from the operator. There are two
types of indenters, Diamond cone and steel ball indenters The depth of an
indentation determines the hardness values. That is it used to determine the
number of hardness by measuring the penetration.

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Brinell hardness test: Brine hardness test was invented by J.A. Brinell in 1900
using a steel ball indenter with a 10 mm diameter. It is similar to Rockwell tests, a
harder spherical indenter is forced into the surface of the metal to be tested.

Objective:

To understand the principles of hardness testing, i.e., Rockwell, Brinell and

Vickers hardness tests. To explain variations in hardness properties of selected
materials such as aluminum, steel, brass and welded metals and can explain factors
that might affects their hardness properties. To select appropriate macro+micro
hardness testing techniques for suitable materials property analysis. Once we have
obtained a hardness value for the material, we need to change it Brinnel scale
which will be convenient to change it into tensile strength values using the
following relation of the Brinnel scale to tensile strength easily

TS (Mpa) = 3.45xHB

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Apparatus:

*Our apparatus is Rockwell hardness test with B scale for soft material and C scale

for hard materials.

*Two different specimens – High speed steel cutter

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 –Brass

Procedure

For B scale (soft material)

1. Found the area used for the experiment which is not initially indented.

2. Rotated the tester until the minor load (10 kg) is set, (the minor load
represents the reference position that breaks down through the surface to
reduce the effects of surface finish)

3. After applying the minor load, set zero the red gauge

4. After setting zero the red gauge, applied the major load (100Kg) mass force
gently, by using ball indenter.

5. Wait for 15-20 seconds.

6. Read the position of the arrow on the red or B scale

7. Perform this procedure for three trials.

For C scale (hard materials)

1. Found the area used for the experiment is not initially indented.

2. Rotated the tester until the minor load (10 kg) is set,

3. After the minor load is applied, set the black gauge to zero.

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 4. After setting zero the C scale (black gauge) zero, applied the major load
(150Kg) mass force gently, by using diamond indenter.

5. Wait for 15-20 seconds.

6. Read the position of the arrow on the black or C scale

7. Perform this procedure for three trials.

Results
Specimen HSS Cutter Brass
Trial 1 76 HRC 21 HRB
Trial 2 82.5 HRC 21.5 HRB
Trial 3 80 HRC 20 HRB

Calculation and Analysis

76+82.5+80
The mean of HSS hardness = 3
=79.5 HRC

20+21.5+21
The mean of the brass hardness = 3
=20.83 HRB

To change the HRB and HRC hardness value to Hardness in Brinell we

use the conversion table above.

+79.5HRC≈ 900HB

+20.83HRB≈ 55HB

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It is possible to convert in to tensile strength

 UTS=3.45HB-------for the HSS

=3.45(900) HB

=3105 MPa

 UTS=3.45HB-------for the brass

=3.45(55) HB

=189.75 MPa

Conclusion
Hardness of a material is dependent on the depth and size of indentation under
controlled conditions of the load and rate of application for many metals hardness
and tensile strength are proportional to each other. Both tensile strength and
hardness are indicators of a metal’s resistance to plastic deformation.
Consequently, they are roughly proportional. For tensile strength as a function of
the HB for mild steel, and brass. Although the same proportionality relationship
does not hold for all metals, the relationship between tensile strength and hardness
in b scale is related by the formula. The above hardness test implies that
application of greater load than the one we applied on the experiment is likely to
result undesired failures and other deviations in the mechanical property of the
material

Impact test

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Introduction:

A metal may be very hard and therefore very strong and yet be unsuitable for
application which it is subjected to sudden loads in service. Materials behave quite
differently when they are loaded suddenly than when they are loaded more slowly
as tensile testing. Because of this fact, impact test is considered to be one of
the basic mechanical tests.

The term brittle fracture is used to describe rapid propagation of cracks without
any excessive plastic deformation at a stress level below the yield stress of the
material. Metals that show ductile behavior usually can, under certain
circumstances, behave in a brittle fashion. The stress needed to cause yield
rises as the temperature falls. At very low temperatures, fracture occurs before
yielding. Impact tests are used not also to measure the energy absorbing
capacity of the material subjected to sudden loading; but also to determine
the transition temperature from ductile to brittle behavior.

Theory

Impact tests determine impact toughness, a material property, most commonly by

measuring the work required to fracture a test specimen under impact tests are
useful in the analysis and prediction of the behaviors of different materials under
impact stresses or dynamic loading. However, such tests cannot directly predict
the reaction of a material to real life loading. Instead, the results are used for
comparison purposes.

Izod Impact Test: In this test, the test piece is a cantilever, clamped upright in an
anvil, with a V-notch at the level of the top of the clamp. The test piece is hit by a
striker carried on a pendulum which is allowed to fall freely from a fixed height.

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After fracturing the test piece, the height to which the pendulum rises is recorded
by a slave friction pointer mounted on the dial, from which the absorbed energy
amount is read.

Charpy Impact Test: The principle of the test differs from that of the Izod test in
that the test piece is tested as a beam supported at each end; a notch is cut across
the middle of one face, and the striker hits the opposite face directly behind the
notch

Objective
 The main objective of this experiment is to determine the toughness of
materials from the pendulum. And compare the toughness of ductile and
brittle materials.
 This experiment also help us to see how materials behave after a sudden load
is applied to them.
 To determine the temperature in which ductile materials change to brittle
materials (DBTT).

Material and equipment:

 Izod impact testing machine.

 1020 AISI metal
.

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Procedure
1. Set the arrow on the simple pendulum (IZOD testing machine) to 17 kgm
2. As we are performing an IZOD impact test, gripped the specimen in the
supporting grippers at the bottom of the simple pendulum.
3. Then the load was unlocked and set free

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 4. Then the result was read and performed for two specimens (ductile and
brittle material).

Result
 For HSS cutter—the absorbed energy is 3 Kgm
 The cutter was broken
 For 1040-steel—the absorbed energy is 16.7 kgm

Calculation and Analysis

Impact toughness for the HSS cutter =3 Kgm * 9.81 m/s2 =29.43 J

Impact toughness for the steel = 16.7 kgm*9.81m/s2= 163.827 J

Conclusion
The HSS cutter has low impact resistance which implies that HSS cutter is brittle.
The reason behind it is that if HSS cutter is ductile it will deform plastically and
the material being cut will not have the desired shape. So HSS cutter must have
high stiffness and low ductility. The steel on the other hand has high impact
toughness because it can absorb large amount of impact energy.

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Generally, Impact test is used to know whether the experimented material have
brittle or ductile property. From the above experiment the steel (the one which
bend due to the applied load) is a ductile material, so it has great ability to resist
impact loads. But the other (one which break into pieces) is a brittle material that
can’t resist impact load (don’t bend).

Torsion test

Introduction

Torsion occurs when any shaft is subjected to a torque. In many areas of

engineering applications, materials are sometimes subjected to torsion in
services, for example, drive shafts, axles and twisted drills. Moreover, structural
applications such as bridges, springs, car bodies, airplane fuselages and boat hulls
are randomly subjected to torsion. The materials used in this case should
require not only adequate strength but also be able to withstand torque in
operation. Even though torsion test is not as universal as tension test and do not
have any standardized testing procedure, the significance lies on particular
engineering applications and for the study of plastic flow in materials. But we were
not able to perform the test so I have only written the theory behind the test.

Theory

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As the two aforementioned names imply, the test specimen will encounter shearing
stresses as a result of the twisting of the specimen and the specimen which is more
rigid, or more resistant to twisting, will have a higher modulus of rigidity. Again,
the modulus of rigidity is a material property and, under non-extreme
environmental conditions, is a constant value for each material. In this experiment
two or three specimens will be tested. These specimens will possess identical
geometric measurements and differ only in material type. The various materials
tested may include brass, aluminum and steel. The experimental determination of
the modulus of rigidity is similar to the experimental determination of the modulus
of elasticity. However, the modulus of elasticity was determined by the application
of an axial load and the test specimen was not plastically deformed. The modulus
of rigidity will be determined by twisting the test specimen and calculating the
slope of the shear stress versus shear strain curve. In addition, the torsion test
specimen will be twisted to failure in order to determine the shear stress at the limit
of proportionality.

From the general torsion theory for circular specimen:

Fatigue testing

Theory

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A method for determining the behavior of materials under fluctuating loads. A
specified mean load (which may be zero) and an alternating load are applied to a
specimen and the number of cycles required to produce failure (fatigue life) is
recorded. Generally, the test is repeated with identical specimens and various
fluctuating loads. Loads may be applied axially, in torsion, or in flexure.
Depending on amplitude of the mean and cyclic load, net stress in the specimen
may be in one direction through the loading cycle, or may reverse direction. Data
from fatigue testing often are presented in an S-N diagram which is a plot of the
number of cycles required to cause failure in a specimen against the amplitude of
the cyclical stress developed. The cyclical stress represented may be stress
amplitude, maximum stress or minimum stress. Most fatigue tests are conducted in
flexure, rotating beam, or vibratory type machines.

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