MECHANICS OF

SOLIDS
COURSE PROJECT
YOUNG’S MODULUS
OF DIFFERENT DUCTILE
MATERIALS
MEMBERS INVOLVED
 17071A0301
 17071A0302
 17071A0303
 17071A0304
 17071A0305
 17071A0306

DEPARTMENT: MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

SECTION : ME-1

INDEX
  CHAPTER 1 : Abstract
 CHAPTER 2 : Introduction
 CHAPTER 3 : Literature review
 CHAPTER 4 : Methodology
 CHAPTER 5 : Experimentation
 CHAPTER 6 : Results & Discussions
 CHAPTER 7 : Conclusion &References

ABSTRACT : This experiment is conducted to find the

young’s modulus of different ductile materials. The basics on
the operation of universal testing machine were also learnt
during this experiment. The Universal Testing Machine can be
used to determine the tensile strengths of many engineering
materials. The stress- strain relationship of various metals can
be used to predict the characteristics of materials when
subjected to different types of loadings.
INTRODUCTION
 For designing any structure, the material properties must
be required.

UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE :

 A Universal Testing Machine (UTM) is used to test

both the tensile and compressive strength of
materials. Universal Testing Machines are named as
such because they can perform many different
varieties of tests on an equally diverse range of
materials, components, and structures. Most UTM
models are modular, and can be adapted to fit the
customer’s needs.
 Universal Testing Machines can accommodate
many kinds of materials, ranging from hard samples,
such as metals and concrete, to flexible samples,
such as rubber and textiles. This diversity makes the
Universal Testing Machine equally applicable to
virtually any manufacturing industry.
 The UTM is a versatile and valuable piece of testing
equipment that can evaluate materials properties
such as tensile strength, elasticity, compression,
yield strength, elastic and plastic deformation, bend
compression, and strain hardening. Different models
 of Universal Testing Machines have different load
capacities, some as low as 5kN and others as high
as 2,000kN.In our experiment we are using a
machine with a capacity of 20kN.We are performing
a tensile test in order to find the young’s modulus .

What is Tensile Testing ?

 Tensile testing is a way of determining how
something will react when it is pulled apart -
when a force is applied to it in tension.
 Tensile testing is one of the simplest and most
widely used mechanical tests. By measuring the
force required to elongate a specimen to
breaking point, material properties can be
determined that will allow designers and quality
managers to predict how materials and products
will behave in their intended applications.

Benefits of Tensile Testing

Tensile testing provides data on the integrity and safety
of materials, components and products, helping
manufacturers ensure that their finished products are fit-
for-purpose and manufactured to the highest quality.
The data produced in a tensile test can be used in many
ways including:

 To determine batch quality

 To determine consistency in manufacture
 To aid in the design process
 To reduce material costs and achieve lean
manufacturing goals
 To ensure compliance with international and industry
standards

Applications of Tensile Testing

Tensile testing is used to guarantee the quality of
components, materials and finished products within a
wide range industries. Typical applications of tensile
testing are highlighted in the following sections on:

 Aerospace Industry
 Automotive Industry
 Beverage Industry
 Construction Industry
 Electrical and Electronics Industry
 Medical Device Industry
 Packaging Industry
 Paper and Board Industry
 Pharmaceuticals Industry
 Plastics, Rubber and Elastomers Industry
  Safety, Health, Fitness and Leisure Industry
 Textiles Industry

Tensile Testing Standards

There are a vast number of tensile testing standards
developed by organisations such as ASTM, BSI, DIN,
ISO and MIL.

Commonly used test standards include:

 ASTM B913, ASTM D76, ASTM D1876, ASTM

D3822, ASTM D412, ASTM D638, ASTM D828,
ASTM E8
 BS 5G 178, BS EN 1895
 ISO 37, ISO 527, ISO 1924, ISO 13934
 MIL-C-39029, MIL-T-7928

 Young’s modulus describes the elastic properties

of a solid undergoing tension or compression in only
one direction, as in the case of a metal rod that after
being stretched or compressed lengthwise returns to
its original length. Young’s modulus is a measure of
the ability of a material to withstand changes in
length when under lengthwise tension or
compression. Sometimes referred to as the modulus
of elasticity, Young’s modulus is equal to the
 longitudinal stress divided by the strain. Stress and
strain may be described as follows in the case of a
metal bar under tension.

 This is a specific form of Hooke’s law (stress directly

proportional to strain) of elasticity. The units of
Young’s modulus in the English system are pounds
per square inch (psi), and in the metric
system newton per meter square (N/m2).

 DUCTILITY - Ductility is a physical property

of a material that the amount of elongation that
gone after when a tensile load is applied before
being fracture. A ductile substance can be
drawn into a wire. Examples: Most metals are
good examples of ductile materials, including
gold, silver, copper, erbium, terbium, and
samarium.

LITERATURE REVIEW
The knowledge of elastic constant of materials is
indispensable for structure design and quality control
purposes. Thus its determination is of utmost
importance to all engineering applications. The Young’s
modulus or modulus of elasticity E is the property
which describes the deformation behavior of a
material or structure under loading. Materials deform
differently when loads are applied, and the
relationship between stress and strain is typically
defined by the Young’s modulus. The ability of any
material to resist or transmit load is important, and
this property is often used to determine if a particular
material is suitable for a specific purpose. The value of
elastic constants can be experimentally determined by
different methods. But whereas we find it by using
universal tensile testing machine. For general
engineering applications static methods are widely
utilized by engineers and scientist. Mostly, the Young’s
modulus E is derived from the slope of the linear part
of the stress-strain curve during uniaxial tensile testing.
For getting accurate values of E, the strain data should
be reasonably accurate which is generally obtained
from either using foil strain gages or clip-on
extensometers. However, the use of strain gages and
extensometers is sometimes limited because of cost
involved, and the size and shape of specimen under
test. Beside this traditional technique, several other
methods are documented in literature for accurate
determination of Young’s modulus (E) of materials.
One is ultrasonic pulse-echo technique [1]-[3]. In this
method, an ultrasonic beam is generated by a
transducer which is attached to the measured
materials. By measuring the sound velocity in the
medium, the elastic properties can be determined. The
other is the resonance method [4], [5]. By measuring
the resonant frequency, elastic properties can be
calculated because resonant frequency is related to
the structure’s geometry as well as the elastic
properties. Indentation methods (micro and nano) are
also widely adopted for determining young’s modulus
where value of E is determined directly from
indentation load and displacement data obtained
during one cycle of loading and unloading [6]-[11]. This
method is very famous because relatively small
amounts of testing materials are needed and there are
 no strict requirements for sample shape. Some authors
have also successfully used nondestructive Eddy
Current technique (combined a/c and d/c magnetic
fields) to evaluate Young’s modulus of solids .

METHODOLOGY
A universal testing machine was used to conduct the
tests on the given specimens. we took a gauge length
 of 20cm (from center offset a distance of 10cm to the
right and left)and left a equal length on both sides. A
high precision load cell with a capacity of 20 kN is
used for recording the load. The ends of the
specimens were carefully mounted in the wedge grips
of the machine to make sure that the specimen is
aligned and centered .The specimens were loaded in
tension to failure at a crosshead strain rate to ensure
steady deformation and recorded easily. When
loading, the whole test process was carefully recorded
by the force/displacement curves and final damage
pictures were obtained using manual photographing.
After the completion of the experiment we measured
the diameter of the specimen, elongation and necking
diameter too.
Generally a manual UTM having two operating valves,
the left valve is used to release the hydraulic oil
pressure after conducting every test and the right
valve is used to gradually increase the hydraulic oil
pressure.
.
EXPERIMENTATION
 The specimens used are mild steel, copper &
aluminium.
 The specimen of mild steel contains
0.05%carbon making it malleable and ductile.
young’s modulus of mild steel is about 190-
210GPa.Length of the specimen taken is
50cm.
 The specimen of copper is ductile and electric
conductivity. The young’s modulus of copper
is 115-130GPa. Length of the specimen taken
is 49cm
 The specimen of aluminium have high thermal
conductivity, low density. Young’s modulus of
aluminium is about 70GPa .The length of
specimen taken is 43cm.
 We took about 200 mm gauge length and
remaining to fit in jaws.
 Now the gauge length is 20 cm so divide it
into 10 parts each of 2cm.mark them with the
dot punch.
 Now place the specimen in the grips.
 Hold the grips tightly , and apply the load
uniformly such that the rate of increase of
stress on the specimen is not more than
1kg/mm2 .
 Now on further loading the specimen reaches
the yield load indicated by stopping of load on
dial of the machine.
 The yield stress is noted on further loading
the load reaches maximum value called
ultimate load.
 After reaching the ultimate load ,the load
pointer moves back very fast and the
specimen breaks at some point called
breaking load ,which is to be noted on hearing
,the breaking sound of the specimen.

 It may also noted that there will be a neck

formation on the test specimen before
breaking.
RESULT
DISCUSSIONS
For different types of materials, the stress-strain plots
can look very different. Ductile materials have a larger
elastic region where the stress-strain relationship is linear,
but at the first turnover (the elastic limit), the linearity
breaks down and the material can no longer return to its
original form. The second peak, is the ultimate tensile
strength and it tells us the maximum stress a material can
withstand before breaking. Plastic materials are not very
strong but can withstand a lot of strain. Young's modulus
is given by the gradient of the line in a stress-strain plot.

In the experiment we find the young’s modulus of copper,

mild steel, aluminium. Making multiple measurements with
the number of points on the stress-strain plot and make
the calculation of Young's modulus more reliable. Another
thing to take care of is measuring the cross-sectional area
of the specimen. We observe that from this the mild steel
has more young’s modulus than that of copper and
aluminium.
CONCLUSIONS
A higher Young's modulus means a material requires higher stress
to stretch a material the same distance as a material with a
lower Young’s modulus. “More elastic” , whatever that exactly is, is
not related to the load. Higher modulus is related
to increased stiffness.

A lower young’s modulus results in the increase of elasticity that

means increase in elongation.
From this we can conclude that mild steel has more stiffness than
copper and aluminium .
Aluminium has high elasticity than copper and mild steel .The
decreasing order of elasticity of copper, aluminium, mild steel is
Aluminium < copper <mild steel.

References ;
[1] N. Parveen and G. V. S. Murthy, “Determination of elastic
modulus in nickel alloy from ultrasonic measurements”, Bull.
Mater. Sci., vol. 34, no. 2, pp. 323–326, April 2011
[2] Q. M. Wang and L. Eric Cross, “Determination of Young’s
modulus of the reduced layer of a piezoelectric RAINBOW
actuator”, J. Appl. Phys., vol. 83, no. 10, pp. 5358-5363, 1998
[3] L. kiesewetter, J.M. Zhang, D. Houdeau and A.
Steckenborn, “Determination of Young’s Moduli of
micromechanical thin films using the resonance method”,
Sensor. Actuat. A-Phys., vol. 35, no. 2, pp. 153-159, Dec. 1992
[4] J. Gubicza, “Determination of Young’s Modulus from
depth sensing Vickers Indentation Tests”, Solid. State.
Phenom, vol. 56, pp. 195- 200, 1997
[5] T. Rio, Go´mez-Del, P. Poza and J. Rodrı´guez,
“Micromechanical characterization of Al 8090/SiC composites
by nanoindentation”, J. Mater. Sci., vol. 40, no. 6, pp. 1513-
1515, 2005
[6] T. Kwaaitaal and A. J. G. Schoofs, “Determination of
Young's Modulus or Poisson's Ratio Using Eddy Currents”,
Exp. Mech., vol. 19, no. 12, pp. 450-455, March 1979