Construction and Building Materials 94 (2015) 521–527

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Use of fly ash in production of light-weight building bricks

Tayfun Çiçek ⇑, Yasin Çinçin
Dokuz Eylül University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Mining Engineering, 35160 Buca, Izmir, Turkey

h i g h l i g h t s

 Real-size fly ash/lime bricks were produced in a steam autoclave.

 Tobermorite and katoite were formed as binding phases in bricks.
2
 Single axis compressive strength of the bricks was 76.5 kg f/cm .
1 1
 The thermal conductivity of the bricks were measured as 0.225 W m K .

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Fly ash is one of the coal combustion products (CCPs) of coal burning power plants and it contains sub-
Received 14 January 2015 stantial amounts of potentially harmful constituents to the environment. It is known that nearly 600 mil-
Received in revised form 29 April 2015 lion tons of fly ash is produced in the world per-annum. In Turkey, the annual production of fly ash is, on
Accepted 12 July 2015
average, 13 million tons and only a small amount of this is utilized. This study examines the production of
Available online 16 July 2015
light-weight, high thermal insulating bricks made out of the fly ash and lime. Cylindrical brick samples
were produced through steam curing of Seyitömer thermal power plant fly ash and lime mixtures in
Keywords:
an autoclave in order to determine the optimum conditions for mechanically sound bricks.
Fly ash
Lime
Subsequently, at the optimum conditions determined, real-size bricks were produced and subjected to
Real-size bricks standard tests. The findings of this paper suggest that fly ash/lime bricks can be an alternative product
Steam autoclave to aerated cellular concrete.
Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction environmental concerns, the use of fly ash in different industries

The fly ash generated during coal combustion process in ther-
mal power plants represents a major environmental problem.
According to 2013 data, in Turkey, 25.7% of total energy production
is supplied from coal burning power plants [1]. Worldwide produc-
tion of fly ash is 600 million tons per-annum whereas Turkey’s
annual production is, on average, 13 million tons [2].
The number of the studies concerning with the characterization
and industrial utilization of fly ash have increased substantially
over the years. These studies focus primarily on properties, classi-
fication and determining possible areas of usage of fly ash.
Depending on the properties of fly ash, many areas of application
mainly in sectors of cement, ceramic, paint, plastic, agriculture,
environment and construction were suggested in relevant litera-
ture [3–8]. Fly ash is widely used in production of cement, con-
crete, cellular concrete, bricks, lightweight construction aggregate
and soil stabilization [9]. In some countries, by the raising
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: tayfun.cicek@deu.edu.tr (T. Çiçek).
has been promoted and even regulated by the governments
through legislations. For example, the clay brick industry has to
incorporate at least 25% fly ash in the brick making mixture if
the clay brick facility is within 100 km from a coal power genera-
tion plant in India [10].
Fly ash is of synthetic pozzolanic character that is thought to be
provided by the aluminates and amorphous silicate minerals that
fly ash contains [11]. Pozzolanic ash has the ability to react with
slaked lime and water [12]. The reaction occurring between lime
and silica occurs based upon CaO–SiO2–H2O (C–S–H) formulation
[13–16]. Hydration reactions can also take place to form
CaO–Al2O3–SiO2–H2O (C–A–S–H) phases contributing to the
strength of the final product [17]. In order to achieve that and to
accelerate the reaction kinetics, curing process should be con-
ducted under pressurized steam at 125–200 °C in an autoclave.
This property of fly ash provides an important advantage for the
utilization of fly ash in production of construction materials.
The use of fly ash in construction materials and concrete pro-
duction is relatively low in Turkey when compared to that of
Germany, the Netherlands, United Kingdom, United States and

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.07.029
0950-0618/Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
522 T. Çiçek, Y. Çinçin / Construction and Building Materials 94 (2015) 521–527

China [8,10,18]. Some studies were focused on production oppor-
tunities of building bricks using fly ash [19–21]. Demir used the
method of firing Seyitömer power plant fly ash/clay bricks and
obtained successful results [22]. Another study that employed
the method of curing under high pressure steam using the
Seyitömer fly ash, slaked lime and sand at pre-determined ratios,
also obtained encouraging results [17]. Recently, studies were con-
ducted towards the leaching behavior of heavy metals from fired
[23] and autoclaved [24] fly ash–lime bricks. The former was com-
posed of 40% Seyitömer fly ash and 60% brick clay while the latter
was containing 88% Seyitömer fly ash and 12% hydrated lime. In
both studies, TCLP [25] (toxicity characteristic leaching procedure)
[Improved Method 1311] and ASTM [26] Method A extraction pro-
cedure were conducted on the whole fly ash brick pieces to deter-
mine the solubility values of the elements in their matrix. TCLP
method, simulating the solubility of the elements contained in
the fly ash brick samples under a weak acid rain water environ-
ment, is used to check the leaching hazards of the solid wastes
(it is especially suitable for the acidic wastes). The results for auto-
claved fly ash lime bricks showed that the bricks produced with
Seyitömer fly ash were environmentally sound in terms of the sol-
ubility of toxic elements.
This study dealt with fly ash/lime bricks cured under high pres-
sure steam. The main contribution of this study is the production
of real size fly ash/lime bricks using a pilot scale autoclave.

2. The material and the method

Fig. 1. The particle-size distribution of fly ash sample from Seyitömer power plant.
The fly ash from Seyitömer power plant and slaked lime are used in this study.
The particle-size distribution of the fly ash sample is given in Fig. 1. The graph
shows that particle size of the sample is below 800 lm and 0/212 lm fraction
makes up 76.06% of the ash. The material was also subjected to chemical analysis
for determining its composition and the results are tabulated in Table 1.
As can be seen in Table 1, the amount of unburnt carbon is higher in the coarse
fraction (212/800 lm: 8.41%) compared to 0/212 lm sieve fraction which contains
1.75% unburnt coal. It is found that the free lime content of this fraction is only
0.32%. No abnormalities were observed in the individual sieve fractions of fly ash
concerning chemical composition.
Based on the data presented in Table 1, SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 (S + A + F) ratio of
0/212 lm sieve fraction was calculated as 83.99% and CaO ratio was determined
as 5.34%. Based on this values, Seyitömer fly ash can be classified as F type of
low-lime fly ash according to ASTM C 618 standard [27].

Table 1
The chemical analyses of fly ash sample from Seyitömer power plant.

Particle size Weight Ignition loss SiO2 Al2O3 CaO MgO Na2O K2O MnO Fe2O3 TiO2 SO3 Free CaO
(lm) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
800/300 15.8 10.08 – – – – – – – – – –
300/212 8.14 5.17 – – – – – – – – – –
800/212 23.94 8.41 – – – – – – – – – –
212/150 7.15 3.5 58.94 17.27 3.97 4.01 0.62 2.03 0.07 8.96 0.16 0.43
150/106 10.75 2.19 57.63 17.56 5.16 4.04 0.79 2.21 0.09 9.55 0.15 0.59
106/63 12.7 1.5 57.53 17.42 5.32 4.13 08 2.53 0.09 9.7 0.13 0.8
63/45 9.7 1.25 57 17.7 5.55 4.14 0.84 2.59 0.1 9.59 0.14 1.05
45/0 35.76 1.5 55.54 17.13 5.62 4.12 0.84 2.81 0.12 10.53 0.13 1.62
212/0 76.06 1.75 56.67 17.33 5.34 4.1 0.81 2.58 0.1 9.99 0.14 1.15 0.32

Fig. 2. The X-ray diffractogram of Seyitömer fly ash sample.

 T. Çiçek, Y. Çinçin / Construction and Building Materials 94 (2015) 521–527 523

The properties of hydrated lime powder used as binding material are as follows:
 Particle size < 30 lm,
 Ca(OH)2: 90%,
 CaO: 66.26%.
The XRD analyses on Seyitömer fly ash were done according to the method of
powder diffraction (between 0° and 90° 2H) with a Rigaku Miniflex II (Cu–X Ray
tube, 30 kV, 15 mA) X-ray diffractometer. Quartz (SiO2), hematite (Fe2O3), anorthite
(CaAl2Si2O8), mullite and magnesioferrite (MgFe+++2O4) were determined as main
phases (Fig. 2).
SEM images were examined under JEOL-JXA-733 Superprobe, scanner electron
microscope, in secondary electron imaging. The study showed that despite contain-
ing a small amount of microspheres, Seyitömer fly ash also comprises a lot of por-
ous particles. Microanalyses under SEM also revealed that these porous particles are
actually calcium aluminosilicates, unburnt carbon, anhydride and mullite which are
composed of kaolinite (Fig. 3).
3. Experimental works
3.1.1. Determining the optimum raw material mixture ratios
The bricks (B1, B2, and B3) were pressed under pressure of
62.5 kg f/cm2 and later were subjected to 6 h of curing in auto-
clave at 12 bars of steam pressure. Compressive strength and
weight per unit volume values of the bricks were determined
and depicted in Fig. 6. As can be seen from Fig. 6, the highest
compressive strength value was obtained for the brick which
was prepared using 88% of ash and 12% of lime. The optimum
water addition for the mixture was around 20 wt.% based
on wet mixture state.
3.1.2. Determining the optimum forming pressure
The relationship between forming pressure, the weight of the
bricks per unit volume and compressive strength was examined.
For this purpose, B1, B4, B5 and B6 bricks were prepared at
the optimum levels of raw materials which were previously

Experimental work of this study was planned to be conducted

in two main parts. The optimum conditions for the production of
cylindrical small bricks were determined in the first part. In the
second part, the production of real size fly ash/lime bricks was real-
ized using the optimum conditions previously determined in the
first part.

3.1. Production of lab-size fly ash/lime bricks

In this part of the study, 45 mm dia  100 mm cylindrical fly

ash/Lime brick samples were produced using a laboratory size
steam autoclave. Optimum levels of the parameters like fly
ash/lime mixture ratio, brick forming pressure, steam pressure of
the autoclave and the duration of curing were tried to be deter-
mined before working on real size bricks.
For steam autoclaving, tests were conducted using an ELE auto-
clave with automated steam pressure control (Fig. 4).
A hydraulic press with max. 5 tons capacity was employed for
brick forming and mechanical strength tests (Fig. 5).
In order to find the optimum parameters for brick production,
the test plan given in Table 2 was followed.

Fig. 4. ELE steam autoclave.

Fig. 3. The SEM image of Seyitömer fly ash. Fig. 5. The laboratory hydraulic press.
524 T. Çiçek, Y. Çinçin / Construction and Building Materials 94 (2015) 521–527

Table 2
Test plan for fly ash brick production with steam autoclave.

Fly Forming Curing

ash
Lime Pressure Pressure Time
wt.% wt.% kg f/cm2 bar h
B1 88 12 62.5 12 6 Raw material tests
B2 90 10 62.5 12 6
B3 92 8 62.5 12 6
B4 88 12 46.9 12 6 Forming pressure tests
B5 88 12 93.8 12 6
B6 88 12 125.0 12 6
B7 88 12 62.5 6 6 Autoclave steam
B8 88 12 62.5 8 6 pressure tests
B9 88 12 62.5 10 6
B10 88 12 62.5 12 2 Duration of curing tests
B11 88 12 62.5 12 4
B12 88 12 62.5 12 8 Fig. 8. The effects of autoclave steam pressure on compressive strength and weight
per unit volume of the bricks.

Fig. 6. The effects of raw materials mixture ratios on Seyitömer fly ash bricks
Fig. 9. The effects of the duration in the autoclave on compressive strength and
compressive strength and weight per unit volume.
weight per unit volume of bricks.

Fig. 7. The effects of forming pressure on compressive strength and weight per unit
volume of the bricks.

determined (Fig. 6). These bricks were cured in the autoclave for
6 h at 12 bars of steam pressure.
The compressive strength and weight per unit volume values of
the bricks were found between 100 and 159 kg f/cm2, 0.939 and
1.048 g/cm3 respectively (Fig. 7). According to the results, the
brick produced by applying 62.5 kg f/cm2 forming pressure gave
the best results with 1.002 g/cm3 weight per unit volume and
125.5 kg f/cm2 compressive strength value.
Fig. 10. The bricks made out of Seyitömer fly ash (200  200  90–110 mm).
3.1.3. Determining the optimum autoclave steam pressure
In this group of tests, the previously-determined optimum
levels of brick forming pressure and raw material mixture ratio
were used produce B1, B7, B8 and B9 bricks. The optimum steam
pressure value was tried to be determined using 6 h curing time
and steam pressure of 6, 8, 10 and 12 bars respectively.
 T. Çiçek, Y. Çinçin / Construction and Building Materials 94 (2015) 521–527 525

The compressive strength of the bricks autoclaved for 2 h was

measured as 95.3 kg f/cm2 whereas the compressive strength was
found as 125.5 kg f/cm2 for the brick autoclaved for 6 h. No mean-
ingful change was observed in the 8-h test. For this reason, 6 h of
curing time was determined as the optimum duration of curing.

3.2. Production of real-size bricks

In this part of the study, real size bricks were produced using
the optimum conditions determined by the previous experiments
presented in this paper. A concrete mixer which has 100 L of gross
volume and 60 L of mixing capacity was employed for the
preparation of the mixture consisting of 88% fly ash and 12% lime
on dry basis. The moisture content of the mixture was kept at
20 wt.%. The wet mixture was later poured into a mould
(200  200  300 mm) and was pressed at 62.5 kg f/cm2
using a 300 tons capacity hydraulic press to produce bricks
200  200  90–100 mm in size (Fig. 10). The pressed bricks were
cured for 6 h in an autoclave (dia. 600  1200 mm) which is resis-
tant up to 40 bars of steam pressure. Pressure and temperature of
the autoclave are controlled automatically (Fig. 11).

3.2.1. Mineralogical composition of the bricks

The mineralogical examinations showed that bricks are
composed of quartz (SiO2), magnesioferrite (MgFe+++2O4),
anhydride (CaSO4), anorthite (CaAl2Si2O8), hematite (Fe2O3),
katoite ((Ca2.93Al1.97Si.64O2.56)
(OH)9.44), tobermorite (9A,
Ca4(Si6 O15)(OH)2 (H2O)5) and calcium silicate hydrate
(2CaO
SiO2
2–4H2O) as the main phases (Fig. 12).
Fig. 11. The raw bricks are being put into the autoclave.

3.2.2. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) images

As it can be seen in Fig. 8, the optimum autoclave pressure for
The broken surfaces of the brick samples were examined under
the bricks is 12 bars.
Jeol JXA733 Superprobe brand of scanning electron microscope
with method of secondary electron imaging. As it can be seen in
3.1.4. Determining the optimum duration of curing
the SEM image (Fig. 13), the fly ash particles and microspheres
At this stage of the study, the effects of duration of curing on the
are bonded to one another by tobermorite crystals which are of
compressive strength and weight per unit volume of the bricks
fiber structure.
were examined. The fly ash bricks which were prepared using
the previously determined optimum conditions (B10, B11, B12
and B1) were cured in the autoclave under 12 bars of steam 3.2.3. Water absorption test and weight per unit volume
pressure for 2, 4, 6, 8 h respectively. Results of these tests are given Water absorption tests were conducted on fly ash brick pieces
in Fig. 9. which are cut in form of cubes (7  7  7 cm). The water

Fig. 12. The X-ray diffractogram of the real size fly ash bricks.
526 T. Çiçek, Y. Çinçin / Construction and Building Materials 94 (2015) 521–527

absorption rate was found to be 60.9% in terms of mass according

to the test results described in TS 699 [28].

3.2.4. Compressive and flexural strength tests

For compressive strength tests, a modified and computerized
laboratory type hydraulic press was used. An average value of
76.5 kg f/cm2 compressive strength was found by the tests con-
ducted on 10 bricks (7  7  7 cm).
Flexural strength of the bricks were determined using rectangu-
lar prisms (200  100  50 mm) that were cut out of the bricks
(Fig. 14). It was found that the average flexural strength of the
bricks was 5.6 kg f/cm2. The tests were performed according to
TS 699 standard [28].

3.2.5. Freeze–thaw tests

Out of the real size bricks cubes of 7  7  7 cm were cut to be
used in the freeze and thaw tests. 10 cubes were subjected to
freeze and thaw test as described in TS 699 [28]. Freeze–thaw pro-
cess was repeated 25 times and the observable changes in the sam-
ples were recorded. As a result, the mass loss was found to be
9.53%. It is found that the brick samples lose their strength after
the freeze–thaw test.

Fig. 13. The SEM image of tobermorite crystals in fly ash bricks.
3.2.6. Determination of the thermal conductivity
The thermal conductivity of the bricks were determined using
hot-wire method with a Showa Denko Shotherm QTM thermal
conductivity measuring device according to Turkish Standards of
TS 825. The thermal conductivity of the fly ash bricks were mea-
sured in average as 0.225 W m 1 K 1 [29].

4. Conclusions

The properties of the real-size fly ash/lime bricks produced

Fig. 14. An image taken during flexural strength tests.
under optimum conditions are summarized in Table 3.
Based on the results of this study the following can be
concluded:
The binding components of the fly ash/lime bricks are tober-
morite (9A, Ca4(Si6 O15)(OH)2 (H2O)5) and katoite Ca2.93Al1.97
Si.64O2.56)
(OH)9.44).
The real size bricks produced in the study were solid blocks and
their lowest weights per unit volume were around 1 t/m3.
Production of hollow bricks with much lower unit volume
weight with sufficient mechanical strength seem to be viable.

Table 3
Properties of real-size fly ash/lime bricks in comparison with other building bricks.

Parameters Seyitömer fly ash/lime bricks Aerated cellular concrete bricks TS EN 771-4 Solid clay bricks TS 705
Fly ash (wt.%) 88
Lime (wt.%) 12
Water in mixture (wt.%) 20
Forming pressure (kg f/cm2) 62.5
Brick size mm 200  200  90–110
Autoclave pressure (kg f/cm2) 12
Duration of curing (hr) 6
Weight per unit volume (kg/m3) 970 400–800 1800
r: 3.27
1 1
Heat conductivity (W m K ) 0.225 0.15–0.23 0.7
Single axis compressive strength (kg f/cm2) 76.5 Min. 10–60 Min. 78
r: 11.59
Flexural strength (kg f/cm2) 5.6 Min. 2–12
r: 1.43
Water absorption rate (wt.%) 60.87 70 Max. 18
r: 3.84
Mass loss after freeze–thaw (%) 9.53
r: 3.29
Mechanical strength after freeze–thaw (kg f/cm2) Failed to measure
 T. Çiçek, Y. Çinçin / Construction and Building Materials 94 (2015) 521–527
The heat conductivity of the bricks with 0.225 W m 1 K 1 is
comparable to that of aerated cellular concrete and superior to that
of clay bricks.
Mass production of fly ash/lime bricks would help to reduce the
negative impacts of fly ash on the environment provided that they
passed the toxic leachability tests. The suggested production route
of fly ash bricks would be capable to compete with aerated cellular
concrete process due to its relatively low cost of raw materials and
production process. The steam for the autoclave can be taken
directly from the power plant which will help to reduce the
production cost even further.
Acknowledgments
This study was supported by the Scientific and Technological
Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK, Project No: 111M694). The
authors would like to thank to TUBITAK for financial support.
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